Al Beruni’s India – Notes

He says of Mahmud (i. 22): "He utterly ruined the prosperity of the country (of India), and performed those wonderful exploits by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people." (xi)

And certainly the Hindus and their world of thought have a paramount, fascinating interest for him, and he inquires with the greatest predilection into every Indian subject, howsoever heathenish it may be, as though he were treating of the most important questions for the souls of Muhammadans,—of free-will and predestination, of future reward and punishment, of the creation or eternity of the Word of God, &c. To Mahmud the Hindus were infidels, to be dispatched to hell as soon as they refused to be plundered. To go on expeditions and to fill the treasury with gold, not to make lasting conquests of territories, was the real object of his famous expeditions; and it was with this view that he cut his way through enormous distances to the richest temples of India at Taneshar, Mathura, Kanoj, and Somanath.(xvii)

To Alberuni the Hindus were excellent philosophers, good mathematicians and astronomers, though he naively believes himself to be superior to them, and disdains to be put on a level with them (i. 23).^ He does not conceal whatever he considers wrong and unpractical with them, but he duly appreciates their mental achievements, takes the greatest pains to appropriate them to himself, even such as could not be of any use to him or to his readers, e.g. Sanskrit metrics; and whenever he hits upon something that is noble and grand both in science and in practical life, he never fails to lay it before his readers with warm-hearted words of approbation. Speaking of the construction of the ponds at holy bathing-places, he says: "In this they have attained a very high degree of art, so that our people (the Muslims), when they see them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them, much less to construct anything like them " (ii. 144). (xvii)

Apparently Alberuni felt a strong inclination towards Indian philosophy. He seems to have thought that the philosophers both in ancient Greece and India, whom he most carefully and repeatedly distinguishes from the ignorant, image-loving crowd, held in reality the very same ideas, the same as seem to have been his own, i.e. those of a pure monotheism ; that, in fact, originally all men were alike pure and virtuous, worshipping one sole Almighty God, but that the dark passions of the crowd in the course of time had given rise to the difference of religion, of philosophical and political persuasions, and of idolatry.(xiii)

He seems to have revelled in the pure theories of the Bhagavadgitd, and it deserves to be noticed that he twice mentions the saying of Vyasa, "Learn twentyfive [i.e., the elements of existence) by distinctions, &c. Afterwards adhere to whatever religion you like ; your end will be salvation" (i. 44, and also i. 104). In one case he even goes so far as to speak of Hindu scholars as " enjoying the help of God" which to a Muslim means as much as inspired hy God, guided hy divine inspiration (ii. 108). (xviii)

He sometimes takes an occasion for pointing out to the reader the superiority of Islam over Brahmanic India. He contrasts the democratic equality of men with the castes of India, the matrimonial law of Islam with degraded forms of it in India, the cleanliness and decency of Muslims with filthy customs of the Hindus. (xix)

He dares not attack Islam, but he attacks the Arabs. In his work on chronology he reproaches the ancient Muslims with having destroyed the civilisation of Eran, and gives us to understand that the ancient Arabs were certainly nothing better than the Zoroastrian Eranians (xix)

This could only be meant as a hint to the Muslim reader not to be too haughty towards the poor bewildered Hindu, trodden down by the savage hordes of King Mahmud, and not to forget that the founders of Islam, too, were certainly no angels (xix)

but the people of this world are not all philosophers. Most of them are ignorant and erring, who cannot be kept on the straight road save by the sword and the whip. And, indeed, ever since Constantino the Victorious became a Christian, both sword and whip have^ever been employed, for without them it would be impossible to rule " (xx) (atrocities on weak – uniform everywhere)

He is a stern judge both of himself and of others. Himself perfectly sincere, it is sincerity which he demands from others. Whenever he does not fully understand a subject, or only knows part of it, he will at once tell the reader so, either asking the reader's pardon for his ignorance, or promising, though a man of fifty-eight years, to continue his labours and to publish their results in time, as though he were acting under a moral responsibility to the public. He always sharply draws the limits of his knowledge; and although he has only a smattering of the metrical system of the Llindus, he communicates whatever little he knows, guided by the principle that the best must not be the enemy of the better (xx) (Good independent Scholar)

Brahmagupta teaches two theories of the eclipses, the popular one of the dragon Rahu's devouring the luminous body, and the scientific one (xxi)

" The greediness of the ignorant Hindu princes for goldmaking does not know any limit," (xxii)

 The book he has produced is not a polemical one. He will not convert the Hindus, nor lend a direct help to missionary zealots. He will simply describe Hinduism, without identifying himself with it. He takes care to inform the reader that he is not responsible for whatsoever repugnant detail he has to relate, but the Hindus themselves. He gives a repertory of information on Indian subjects, destined for the use of those who lived in peaceable intercourse with them, and wished to have an insight into their mode and world of thought (xxiii) (objectivity)

The author has nothing in common with the Muhammadan Ghazi who wanted to convert the Hindus or to kill them, and his book scarcely reminds the reader of the incessant war between Islam and India, during which it had been prepared, and by which the possibility of writing such a book had first been given. It is like a magic island of quiet, impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples. The object which the author had in view, and never for a moment lost sight of, was to afford the necessary information and training to " any one (in Islam) who wants to converse ivith the Hindus, and to discuss with them questions of religion, science, or literature, on the very basis of their own civilisation " (xxiii) (objectivity)

He presents a picture of Indian civilisation as painted by the Hindus themselves. (xxiv)

Greece, Persia, and India were taxed to help the sterility of the Arab mind (xxviii)

An author by the name of 'Ali Ibn Ziyad Altamimi is said to have translated from Persian a book, Zijalshahriydr, which, to judge by the title, must have been a system of astronomy. It seems to have been extant when Alberuni wrote his work on chronology ; vide " Chronology of Ancient Nations," translated, &c., by Edward Sachau, London, 1876, p. 6, and note p. 368. Perhaps it was from this source that the famous Alkhwarizmi drew his knowledge of Persian astronomy, which he is said to have exhibited in his extract from the Brahmasiddhdnta, composed by order of the Khalif Ma'^mun. For we are expressly told (vide Gildemeister, Scriptorum Arahum de rehus Indicis loci, &c., p. loi) that he used the media, i.e. the mean places of the planets as fixed by Brahmagupta, whilst in other things he deviated from him, giving the equations of the planetary revolutions according to the theory of the Persians, and the declination of the sun according to Ptolemy. Of what kind this Persian astronomy was we do not know, but we must assume that it was of a scientific character, based on observation and computation, else Alkhwarizmi would not have introduced its results into his own work. (xxx)

What India has contributed reached Bagdad by two different roads. Part has come directly in translations from the Sanskrit, part has travelled through Eran, having originally been translated from Sanskrit (Pali ? Prakrit ?) into Persian, and farther from Persian into Arabic. In this way, e.g. the fables of Kalila and Dimna have been communicated to the Arabs, and a book on medicine, probably the famous Caraka. (xxxi)

In this communication between India and Bagdad we must not only distinguish between two different roads, but also between two different periods. As Sindh was under the actual rule of the Khalif Mansur (A.D 753-774), there came embassies from that part of India to Bagdad, and among them scholars, who brought along with them two books, the Brahmasiddhdnta to Brahmagupta (Sindhind), and his Khandakhddyaka (Arkand). With the help of these pandits, Alfazari, perhaps also Yakub Ibn Tarik, translated them. Both works have been largely used, and have exercised a great influence. It was on this occasion that the Arabs first became acquainted with a scientific system of astronomy. They learned from Brahmagupta earlier than from Ptolemy.(xxxi)

Another influx of Hindu learning took place under Harun, A.D. 786-808. The ministerial family Barmak, then at the zenith of their power, had come with the ruling dynasty from Balkh, where an ancestor of theirs had been an official in the Buddhistic temple Nauhehdr, i.e. nava vihara = the new temple (or monastery). The name Barmak is said to be of Indian descent, meaning paramaka, i.e. the superior (abbot of the vihara ?). Cf. Kern, Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, ii. 445, 543. Of course, the Barmak family had been converted, but their contemporaries never thought much of their profession of Islam, nor regarded it as genuine. Induced probably by family traditions, they sent scholars to India, there to study medicine and pharmacology. Besides, they engaged Hindu scholars to come to Bagdad, made them the chief physicians of their hospitals, and ordered them to translate from Sanskrit into Arabic books on medicine, pharmacology, toxicology, philosophy, astrology, and other subjects. Still in later centuries Muslim scholars sometimes travelled for the same purposes as the emissaries of the Barmak, e.g. Almuwaffak not long before Alberuni's time (Codex Vindohonensis, sive medici Ahu Mansur liher fundamentorum phctrmacologicB, ed. Seligmann, Vienna, 1859, pp. 6, 10, and 15, 9) (xxxi)

Soon afterwards, when Sindh was no longer politically dependent upon Bagdad, all this intercourse ceased entirely. Arabic literature turned off into other channels. There is no more mention of the presence of Hindu scholars at Bagdad nor of translations of the Sanskrit. Greek learning had already won an omnipotent sway over the mind of the Arabs, being communicated to them by the labours of Nestorian physicians, the philosophers of Harran, and Christian scholars in Syria and other parts of the Khalifate. Of the more ancient or Indo-Arabian stratum of scientific literature nothing has reached our time save a number of titles of books, many of them in such a corrupt form as to bafile all attempts at decipherment (xxxii)

Among the Hindu physicians of this time one ^'^ ijV is mentioned, i.e. the son of DHN, director of the hospital of the Barmaks in Bagdad. This name may be Dhanya. or Dhanin, chosen probably on account of its etymological relationship with the name Dhanvantri, the name of the mythical physician of the gods in Manu's law-book and the epos (cf. A. Weber, Indische Litteraiurgeschichte, pp. 284, 287). A similar relation seems to exist between the names Kanka, that of a physician of the same period, and Kdiikdyana, an authority in Indian medicine (cf. Weber, /. c , pp. 287 note, and 284 note, 302). The name .LI, that of an author of a book on drinkables, may be identical with Atri, mentioned as a medical author by Weber, I. c, p. 288. There was a book by one b^X^j (also written i^j^^;) on wisdom or philosophy (cf. Fihrist, p. 305). According to Middle-Indian phonetics this name is = vedavyasa.^ A man of this name, also called Vyasa or Badanaryana, is, according to the literary tradition of India, the originator of the Vedanta school of philosophy (cf. Colebroke, Essays, i. 352), and this will remind the reader that in the Arabian Sufism the Indian Vedanta philosophy reappears (xxxiii)

Besides books on astronomy, mathematics (C_J^^CSO' i_fw\i^!l), astrology, chiefly jatakas, on medicine and pharmacology, the Arabs translated Indian works on snakes (sarpavidya), on poison (vishavidya), on all kinds of auguring, on talismans, on the veterinary art, de arte amandi, numerous tales, a life of Buddha, books on logic and philosophy in general, on ethics, politics, and on the science of war. Many Arab authors took up the subjects communicated to them by the Hindus and worked them out in original compositions, commentaries, and extracts. A favourite subject of theirs was Indian mathematics, the knowledge of which became far spread by the publications of Alkindi and many others. (xxxiv)

For the Buyide princes who ruled over Western Persia and Babylonia between A.D. 932 and 1055, the fables of Kalila and Dimna were translated (xxxiv)

Some of the books that had been translated under the first Abbaside Khalifs were extant in the library of Alberuni when he wrote the 'Indika., the Brahmasidhanta or Sindhind, and the Khandahhddyaka or Arkand in the editions of Alfazari and of Yakub Ibn Tarik, the Caraka in the edition of 'All Ibn Zain, and the Panchantra or Kalila and Dimna. He also used an Arabic translation of the Karanasara by Vittesvara (ii. 55), but we do not learn from him whether this was an old translation or a modern one made in Alberuni's time. These books offered to Alberuni—he complains of it repeatedly—the same difficulties as to us, viz., besides the faults of the translators, a considerable corruption of the text by the negligence of the copysist (xxxv)

In India Alberuni recommenced his study of Indian astronomy, this time not from translations, but from Sanskrit originals, and we here meet with the remarkable fact that the works which about A.D. 770 had been the standard in India still held the same high position A.D. 1020, viz., the works of Brahmagupta. Assisted by learned pandits, he tried to translate them, as also the Pidisasiddhdnta (vide preface to the edition of the text, § 5), and when he composed the 'Indika., he had already come forward with several books devoted to special points of Indian astronomy. As such he quotes:— (i.) A treatise on the determination of the lunar stations or nak'ihatras, ii. 83. (2.) The Khaydl-alkuslXfaini, which contained, probably beside other things, a description of the Yoga. theory, ii. 208. (3.) A book called The Arahic KhandaJchddyaka, on the same subject as the preceding one, ii. 208. (4.) A book containing a description of the Karanas, the title of which is not mentioned, ii. 194. (5.) A treatise on the various systems of numeration, as used by different nations, i. 174, which probably described also the related Indian subjects. (6.) A book called " Key of Astronomy," on the question whether the sun rotates round the earth or the earth round the sun, i. 277. We may suppose that in this book he had also made use of the notions of Indian astronomers. (7.) Lastly, several publications on the different methods for the computation of geographical longitude, i. 315. He does not mention their titles, nor whether they had any relation to Hindu methods of calculation. (xxxvi)

Books referred by Al Beruni (xxxix)

In Chapter i. the author speaks at large of the radical difference between Muslims and Hindus in everything, and tries to account for it both by the history of India and by the peculiarities of the national character of its inhabitants (i. 17 seq.). Everything in India is just the reverse of what it is in Islam, " and if ever a custom of theirs resembles one of ours, it has certainly just the opposite meaning " (i. 179). (xli)

Preface :

- the followers of the truth, i.e. the Muslims -pg7 – (He is a devout muslim considering Islam as religion of truth)

-My book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts. I shall place before the reader the theories of the Hindus exactly as they are - pg7-  (Objectivity )

Chap. 1

Hindus entirely differ from us in every respect, many a subject appearing intricate and obscure which would be perfectly clear if there were more connection between us. – pg17

Besides, the scientific books of the Hindus are composed in various favourite metres, by which they intend, considering that the books soon become corrupted by additions and omissions, to preserve them exactly as they are, in order to facilitate their being learned by heart, because they consider as canonical only that which is known by heart, not that which exists in writing. -pg19

they totally differ from us in religion, as we believe in nothing in which they believe, and vice versa. On the whole, there is very little disputing about theological topics among themselves; at the utmost, THEY FIGHT WITH WORDS, BUT THEY WILL NEVER STAKE THEIR SOUL OR BODY OR THEIR PROPERTY ON RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSY. On the contrary, all their fanaticism is directed against those who do not belong to them—against all foreigners. They call them mleccha, i.e. impure, and forbid having any connection with them, be it by

intermarriage or any other kind of relationship, or by sitting, eating, and drinking with them, because thereby, they think, they would be polluted. They consider as impure anything which touches the fire and the water of a foreigner; and no household can

exist without these two elements. Besides, they never desire that a thing which once has been polluted should be purified and thus recovered, as, under ordinary circumstances, if anybody or anything has become unclean, he or it would strive to regain the state of purity. They are not allowed to receive anybody who does not belong to them, even if he wished it, or was inclined to their religion. This, too, renders any connection with them quite impossible, and constitutes the widest gulf between us and them. – pg19-20 (debate and not fight on religious issues – r xenophobic – the reason being the Islamic attacks on hindus for preceding 2 centuries where hindus were taken slaves and also Mahmud’s attacks on temples / Alberuni being part of Mahmud’s expedition)

In the third place, in all manners and usages they differ from us to such a degree as to frighten their children with us, with our dress, and our ways and customs, and as to declare us to be devil's breed, and our doings as the very opposite of all that is good and proper. By the by, we must confess, in order to be just, that a similar depreciation of foreigners not only prevails among us and the Hindus, but is common to all nations towards each other. –pg 20 (xenophobia was common among all nations)

Why Hindus were not willing to trust foreigners : Buddhist (very similar to Hindus) were dominant in all of Iran, Iraq till Syria – they were driven off by Zarashtraism from all these countries – hence there was aversion to people of the west ie iran. – Pg 21

But then came Islam; the Persian empire perished, and the repugnance of the Hindus against foreigners increased more and more when the Muslims began to make their inroads into their country; for Muhammad Ibn Elkasim Ibn Elmunabbih entered

Sindh from the side of Sijistan(Sakastene) and conquered the cities of Bahmanwa and Mulasthana, the former of which he called Al-mansitra, the latter Al-mct'mtlra. He entered India proper, and penetrated even as far as Kanauj, marched through the country of Gandhara, and on his way back, through the confines of Kashmir, sometimes fighting sword in hand, sometimes gaining his ends by treaties, leaving to the people their ancient belief, except in the case of those who wanted to become Muslims. All these events planted a deeply rooted hatred in their hearts. – Pg 21 (Hatred towards muslims)

Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. Their scattered remains cherish, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims. THIS IS THE REASON, TOO, WHY HINDU SCIENCES HAVE RETIRED FAR AWAY FROM THOSE PARTS OF THE COUNTRY CONQUERED BY US, AND HAVE FLED TO PLACES WHICH OUR HAND CANNOT YET REACH, TO KASHMIR, BENARES, AND OTHER PLACES. And there the antagonism between them and all foreigners receives more and more nourishment both from political and religious sources. – pg 22 (Reason for hatred for muslims – shifting of  the sciences from the conquered places)

Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like

theirs. They are haughty, foolishly vain, self-conceited, and stolid. They are by nature niggardly in communicating that which they know, and they take the greatest possible care to withhold it from men of another caste among their own people, still much more, of course from any foreigner. According to their belief, there is no other country on earth but theirs, no other race of

man but theirs, and no created beings besides them have any knowledge or science whatsoever. Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them of any science or scholar in Khurasan and Persis, they will think you to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they travelled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, FOR THEIR ANCESTORS WERE NOT AS NARROW-MINDED AS THE PRESENT GENERATION IS. – pg 22-23 (arrogance of hindus – similar to the Americans of today – y did they become self conceited / arrogant or closed to foreigners? Is it due to barbarity of muslims that they witnessed for last 2 centuries)

One of their scholars, Varahamihira, in a passage where he calls on the people to honour the Brahmans, says : " The GREEKS, THOUGH IMPURE, MUST HE HONOURED, SINCE THEY WERE TRAINED IN SCIENCES, AND THEREIN EXCELLED OTHERS. What, then, are we to say of a Brahman, if he combines with his purity the height of science " pg 23(Respect to purity and sciences)

then they flocked together round me from all parts, wondering, and MOST EAGER TO LEARN FROM ME, asking me at the same time from what Hindu master – pg 23 (answer to conceit – Hindus did not encounter anyone better so were arrogant but when someone proved better than them – they were eager to learn)

Hindu scholars who understand them and are able to teach me. – pg 24 (exchange of knowledge)

What scholar, however, has the same favourable opportunities of studying this subject as I have ? That would be only the case with one to whom the grace of God accords – pg 24 (considers himself lucky to be learning from Hindus)

The heathen Greeks, before the rise of Christianity held much the same opinions as the Hindus; their educated  classes thought much the same as those of the Hindus; their common people held the same idolatrous views as those of the Hindus – pg 24 (similarity of thought and belief between Hindus and Greeks)

For that whch is not the truth (ie the true belief or monotheism) does not admit of any correction, and all heathenism, whether Greek or Indian, is in its pith and marrow one and the same belief, because it is only a deviation from the truth. – pg 24 (considers Islam to be absolute truth and other thoughts as deviation of truth)

The Greeks, however, had philosophers who, living in their country, discovered and worked out for them the elements of science, not of popular superstition, for it is the object of the upper classes to be guided by the results of science, whilst the common crowd will always be inclined to plunge into wrong-headed wrangling, as long as they are not kept down by fear of punishment. Think of Socrates when he opposed the crowd of his nation as to their idolatry and did not want to call the stars gods ! At once eleven of the twelve judges of the Athenians agreed on a sentence of death, and Socrates died faithful to the truth.  The Hindus had no men of this stamp both capable and willing to bring sciences to a classical perfection. Therefore you mostly find that even the so-called scientific theorems of the Hindus are in a state of utter confusion, devoid of any logical order, and in the last instance always mixed up with the silly notions of the crowd, e.g. immense numbers, enormous spaces of time, and all kinds of religious dogmas, which the vulgar belief does not admit of being called into question. Therefore it is a prevailing practice among the Hindus jurare in verba magistri; and I can only compare their mathematical and astronomical literature, as far as I know it, to

a mixture of pearl shells and sour dates, or of pearls and dung, or of costly crystals and common pebbles. Both kinds of things are equal in their eyes, since they cannot raise themselves to the methods of a strictly scientific deduction. - pg25 ( Difference between Greeks and Hindus way of science – Greeks scholars were able to separate superstition (religion) and science whereas Hindus could not – Sciences r the work of upper classes and lower classes r to be kept in check by fear of punishment. Hindus sciences include notions (superstition) of the lower classes) (It seems  there was quite separation between Greek higher and lower classes that is y Grek civilization succumbed to Christianity – whereas Hindu literature and Sciences included notions of lower classes and it managed to survive)

Chap. 2 : Hindu Belief in God

The Hindus believe with regard to God that he is one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by freewill, almighty, all-wise, living, giving life, ruling, preserving ; one who in his sovereignty is unique, beyond all likeness and unlikeness, and that he does not resemble anything nor does anything resemble him. – Pg 27 (similar to Islamic concept of God) 

Gives excerpts from discourse of Pitaljali and Gita. Different opinions about God, action, soul, etc.  among Hindus.

Chap. 3:  ON THE HINDU BELIEF AS TO CREATED THINGS, BOTH " INTELLIGIBILIA " AND "SENSIBILIA."

ON this subject the ancient Greeks held nearly the same view as the Hindus, at all events in those times before philosophy rose high among them under the care  before philosophy rose high among them under the care of the seven so-called pillars of wisdom – pg 33(similarity between Hindu and Greek thought)

 

As to the souls and spirits, the Greeks think that they exist by themselves before they enter bodies – pg 34 (Greeks belief in soul)

Therefore they called them gods, built temples in their names and offered them sacrifices – pg 34 (similar practice to Hindus)

"God is in the single number ; there are no gods in the plural number."  – pg 35 (Plato’s belief in God)

These quotations prove that the Greeks call in general god everything that is glorious and noble, and the like usage exists among many nations. They go even so far as to call gods the mountains, the seas, - pg 36 (similar practice to Hindus)

Johannes Grammaticus says in his refutation of Proclus: " The Greeks gave the name of gods to the visible bodies in heaven, as many barbarians do. Afterwards, when they came to philosophise on the abstract ideas of the world of thought, they called these

by the name of gods." – pg 36 (It is usual that we humans imagine God due to unknown phenomena and then bring him to fill the gaps in abstract ideas)

This Galenus says in clear words in the same book: "If it is true that Asclepius was a man in bygone times, and that then God deigned to make him one of the angels, everything else is idle talk." – pg 36 (Creation of Greek Gods having similarity to the creation of Hindu Gods)

If we consider the use of the word god in the Arabic language, we find that all the names by which the pure truth, i.e.

Allah, has been named, may somehow or other be applied to other beings besides him, except the word Allah, which only applies to God, and which has been called his greatest name – Pg 36 (Al Beruni is a devout muslim).

The educated among the Hindus abhor anthropomorphisms of this kind, but the crowd and the members of the single sects use them most extensively. They go even beyond all we have hitherto mentioned, so as to speak of wife, son, daughter, of the rendering pregnant and other physical processes, all in connection with God. They are even so little pious, that, when

speaking of these things, they do not even abstain from silly and unbecoming language. However, nobody minds these classes and their theories, though they be numerous. The main and most essential point of the Hindu world of thought is that which the Brahmans think and believe, for they are specially trained for preserving and maintaining their religion. – pg 39 (Educated Hindus do not attribute human characteristics to God but lower level classes (crowd) do without entering into conflict with the educated classes. Vedic (educated) and Puranic thoughts (crowd) co-existing peacefully. Importance of Brahmins in preserving Hindu religion)

Regarding the whole creation, they think that it is a unity, as has already been declared, because Vasudeva speaks in the book called Gitd : " To speak accurately, we must say that all things are divine; for Vishnu made himself the earth that the living beings should rest thereupon ; he made himself water to nourish them thereby ; he made himself fire and wind in order to make them grow; and he made himself the heart of every single being. He presented them with recollection and knowledge and the two opposite qualities, as is mentioned in the Veda." – pg 40 (everything is divine)

book of Apollonius, De Causis Rerum, as if the one had been taken from the other ! He says : • "There is in all men a divine power, by which all things, both material and immaterial, are apprehended." – pg 40 (Greek thought on divinity similar to Hindus)

Purusha, Avyakta, Prakriti, Ahankara, Mahabhuta, Pancha mantra, Indriyani, Karmendyani, tattava, - pg 40-44

The Hindus consider the plants as a species of animal as Plato also thinks that the plants have a sense, because they have the faculty of distinguishing between that which suits them and that which is detrimental to them. – pg 43

Therefore Vyasa the son of Parasara speaks : " Learn twenty-five by distinctions, definitions, and divisions, as you learn a

logical syllogism, and something which is a certainty, not merely studying with the tongue. Afterwards adhere to whatever religion you like; your end will be salvation." – pg 44 (no stress on following any particular religion – importance is to imbibe the values)

Chap 5 : FEOM WHAT CAUSE ACTION OKIGINATES, AND HOW THE SOUL IS CONNECTED WITH MATTER.

Hindus compare the soul to a dancing-girl who is clever in her art and knows well what effect each motion and pose of hers has. She is in the presence of a sybarite most eager of enjoying what she has learned. Now she begins to produce the various kinds of her art one after the other under the admiring gaze of the host, until her programme is finished and the eagerness of the spectator

has been satisfied. Then she stops suddenly, since she could not produce anything but a repetition ; and as a repetition is not wished for, he dismisses her, and action ceases. – pg 47

The book of Samkhya derives action from matter, for the difference of forms under which matter appears depends upon the three primary forces, and upon whether one or two of them gain the supremacy over the  remainder. These forces are the angelic, the human,and the animal. The three forces belong only to matter, not to the soul. The task of the soul is to learn the actions of matter like a spectator, resembling a traveler who sits down in a village to repose. Each villager is busy with his own particular work, but he looks at them and considers their doings, disliking some, liking others, and taking an example from them. In this way

he is busy without having himself any share in the business going on, and without being the cause which has brought it about. – pg 48 (Samkhya philosophy)

Samkhya / Soul – Pg 49

Chap 5 : ON THE STATE OF THE SOULS, AND THEIR MIGRATIONS THROUGH THE WORLD IN THE METEMPSYCHOSIS

" There is no god but God, Muhammad is his prophet," is the shibboleth of Islam, the Trinity that of Christianity, and the institute of the Sabbath that of Judaism, so metempsychosis is the shibboleth of the Hindu religion. Therefore he who does not believe in it does not belong to them, and is not reckoned as one of them. – pg 50 (Transmigration of Soul is fundamental to Hindu religion)

The soul, as long as it has not risen to the highest absolute intelligence, does not comprehend the totality of objects at once, or, as it were, in no time. Therefore it must explore all particular beings and examine all the possibilities of existence ; and as their number is, though not unlimited, still an enormous one, the soul wants an enormous space of time in order to finish the contemplation of such a multiplicity of objects. The soul acquires knowledge only by the contemplation of the individuals and the species, and of their peculiar actions and conditions. It gains experience from each object, and gathers thereby new knowledge. – pg 50 (Transmigration of Souls through various species)

the world is not left without some direction, being led, as it were, by a bridle and directed towards a definite scope. Therefore

the imperishable souls wander about in perishable bodies conformably to the difference of their actions, as they prove to be good or bad. Pg 50 (r we being led in certain direction??)

The object of the migration through the world of reward (i.e. heaven) is to direct the attention of the soul to the good, that it should become desirous of acquiring as much of it as possible. The object of its migration through the world of punishment (i.e. hell) is to direct its attention to the bad and abominable, that it should strive to keep as far as possible aloof from it. – pg 51 (Karma)

The migration begins from low stages, and rises to higher and better ones, not the contrary, as we state on purpose, since the one is a priori as possible as the other. The difference of these lower and higher stages depends upon the difference of the actions, and this again results from the quantitative and qualitative diversity of the temperaments and the various degrees of combinations in which they appear. This migration lasts until the object aimed at has been completely attained both for the soul and matter ;

the lower aim being the disappearance of the shape of matter, except any such new formation as may appear desirable ; the higher aim being the ceasing of the desire of the soul to learn what it did not know before, the insight of the soul into the nobility of its own being and its independent existence, its knowing that it can dispense with matter after it has become acquainted with the mean nature of matter and the instability of its shapes, with all that which matter offers to the senses, and with the truth of the tales about its delights. Then the soul turns away from matter; the connecting links are broken, the union is dissolved. Separation and dissolution take place, and the soul returns to its home, carrying with itself as much of the bliss of knowledge as sesame develops grains and blossoms, afterwards never separating from its oil The intelligent being, intelligence and its object, are

united and become one. – pg 51 (nut shell of Hindu philosophy)

Gita gyan – pg 52-54

The ancient Greeks agreed with the Hindus in this belief. Socratcs says in the book Phaedo : " We are reminded in the tales of the ancients that the souls go from here to Hades, and then come from Hades to here; that the living originates from the dead, and

that altogether things originate from their contraries. Therefore those who have died are among the living. Our souls lead an existence of their own in Plades. The soul of each man is glad or sorry at something, and contemplates this thing. This impressionable nature ties the soul to the body, nails it down in the body, and gives it, as it were, a bodily figure. The soul

which is not pure cannot go to Hades. It quits the body still filled with its nature, and then migrates hastily into another body, in which it is, as it were, deposited and made fast. Therefore, it has no share in the living of the company of the unique, pure, divine

essence." – pg 56-57 (Greeks believing in migration of souls)

Greek philosophers Plato and Proclus ascertaining their belief in migration of souls – pg 57.

Chap 6 : ON THE DIFFERENT WORLDS, AND ON THE PLACES OF RETRIBUTION IN PARADISE AND HELL.

About Swarloka, narkloka and manushyaloka (Heaven, Hell and Living World)  - How and why do people enter these – migration of souls from hell to plants to animals to humans.- pg 59

Different types of hell and what actions are considered as sin by hindus – pg 60-61

Good and Bad actions to be balanced while deciding the quantum of reward or punishment – and it is not the action that decides retribution but the intention. – pg 62

Karma (Vishnu Purana) – pg 63-64

Migration of Soul – muslim writer (Abu-Yakiib) and Greeks (Plato, Pythagoras, Socrates) also believing in it – migration of souls from animals to humans depending on their deeds and also believing in rewards and punishment (Karma)  – pg 65-67

Chap 7 : ON THE NATURE OF LIBERATION FROM THE WORLD, AND ON THE PATH LEADING THERETO.

Now according to the Hindus, as we have already explained (p. 55), the reason of the bond is ignorance, and therefore it can only be liberated by knowledge, by comprehending all things in such a way as to define them both in general and in particular, rendering superfluous any kind of deduction and removing all doubts. – pg 68 (Hindus have imbibed the pursuit of knowledge in religion)

Patanjali says : “…..He who wants God, wants the good for the whole creation without a single exception for any reason

whatever; ….” –pg68 (Good of everyone without exception – so pursuit of God is pursuit of goodness for humanity)

Sufi parallel – pg 69

Patanjili’s definition of 4 types of knowledge – pg 70

According to the Hindus, the organs of the senses have been made for acquiring knowledge, and the pleasure which they afford has been created to stimulate people to research and investigation, as the pleasure which eating and drinking afford to the taste has been created to preserve the individual by means of nourishment. So the pleasure of coitus serves to preserve the species by giving birth to new individuals. If there were not special pleasure in these two functions, man and animals would not.practise them for these purposes. – pg 70 (philosophizing senses)

In the book Gita we read: "Man is created for the purpose of kuowing; and because knowing is always the same, man has been gifted with the same organs…But knowledge is such as to leave this nature behind itself prostrated on the earth like an

opponent, and removes all darkness from the soul as an eclipse or clouds are removed from the sun” – pg 70-71 (emphasis on knowledge not action)

 This resembles the opinion of Socrates  “….if we were not inoculated with its nature, but were perfectly free from it, we should come near knowledge by getting rest from the ignorance of the body, and we should become pure by knowing ourselves as far as God would permit us. And it is only right to acknowledge that this is the truth." – pg 71 (similarity between Gita’s teachings and that of Socrates)

we have to consider that man must prefer the reasoning force of mind, by which he becomes similar to the highest angels – pg 72-73 (reasoning is prime virtue)

Gita’s teachings – pg 73-74

Nine rules to guide Hindus – pg 74-75

Gita’s teaching with parallel thoughts of Socrates and Sufis – pg 75-76

Attaining liberation : Pitanjali, Vishnu Purana, Gita, Samkhya  with Sufi and Greek parallels – pg 77- 88

The practical one (kriyd-yoga), - This is in general the path of him who does not desire anything save what is sufficient to sustain life. The second part of the path of liberation is of renunciation. The third part of the path of liberation which is to be Considered as instrumental to the preceding two is worship,

Further, Pythagoras says : " How can you hope for the state of detachment as long as you are clad in bodies ? And how will you obtain liberation as long as you are incarcerated in them ? " – pg 85 (similar to Gita’s teaching)

Greeks view on liberation : pg 85-86

Further, Socrates says: " The soul is very similar to the divine substance which does not die nor dissolve, and is the only intelligibile which lasts for ever; When soul and body unite, nature orders body to serve, the soul to rule ; but when

they separate, the soul goes to another place than that to which the body goes…..If, however, it has sullied itself by connivance with the body, by serving and loving it so that the body was subservient to its lusts and desires, in this case it does not experience

anything more real than the species of bodily things (TO crw/;,aToetSes) and the contact with them." - pg 86 (similar to Gita’s teaching)

Sufi view on liberation – pg 87-88

Abu-Yazid Albistami once being asked how he had attained his stage in Sufism, answered : " I cast off my own self as a serpent casts off its skin. Then I considered my own self, and found that / was He," i.e. God. –pg 88 (sufi thought similar to Vedantic one)

Chap 8 : ON THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF CREATED BEINGS, AND ON THEIR NAMES.

The Hindus are people who rarely preserve one and the same order of things, and in their enumeration of things there is much that is arbitrary. They use or invent numbers of names, and who is to hinder or to control them ?- pg 89 (there is flexibility in hindu philosophy which change as per philosopher and time; there is no dogma)

On Devatas, Rasksha, Rudra, Vishnu, etc  similarity to Greek Gods - Zeus, etc

If you compare these traditions with those of the G reeks regarding their own religion, you will cease to find the Hindu system strange. – pg 95 (Similarity between of Hindu and Greek Gods)

If you compare Greek theology with that of the Hindus, you will find that Brahman is described in the same way as Zeus by Aratos. – pg 97

Chap 11 : ON THE CASTES, CALLED " COLOUKS " (VAIINA), AND ON THE CLASSES BELOW THEM.

T'he kings of antiquity, who were industriously devoted to the duties of their office, spent most of their care on the division of their subjects into different classes and orders, which they tried to preserve from intermixture and disorder. Therefore they forbade people of different classes to have intercourse with each other, and laid upon each class a particular kind of work or art and handicraft. They did not allow anybody to transgress the limits of his class, and even punished those who would not be content with their class. – pg 99 (Rulers everywhere favoured division of labour and segregation of classes and intermixing was not allowed)

All this is well illustrated by the history of the ancient Chosroes (Khusrau), for they had created great institutions of this kind, which could not be broken through by the special merits of any individual nor by bribery. When Ardashir ben Babak restored the Persian empire, he also restored the classes or castes of the population in the following way :—

The first class were the knights and princes.

The second class the monks, the fire-priests, and the lawyers.

The third class the physicians, astronomers, and other men of science.

The fourth class the husbandmen and artisans.

And within these classes there were subdivisions, distinct from each other, like the species within a genus. – pg 100 (Caste system among Persians)

The Hindus call their castes varna, i.e. colours, and from a genealogical point of view they call them jataka,

i,e, births. These castes are from the very beginning only four:

I. The highest caste are the Brahmana, of whom the books of the Hindus tell that they were created from the head of Brahman. And as Brahman is only another name for the force called nature, and the head is the highest part of the animal body, the Brahmana are the choice part of the whole genus. Therefore the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.

I I , The next caste are the Kshatriya, who were created, as they say, from the shoulders and hands of Brahman. Their degree is not much below that of the Brahmana.

I I I , After them follow the Vaisya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman.

IV, The SUdra, who were created from his feet.

Between the latter two classes there is no very great distance. Much, however, as these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings. – pg 101 (No oppressive caste system among recognized castes)

After the Sudra follow the people called Antyaja, who render various kinds of services, who are not reckoned amongst any caste, but only as members of a certain craft or profession. There are eight classes of them, who freely intermarry with each other, except the fuller, shoemaker, and weaver, for no others would condescend to have anything to do with them. These eight guilds

are the fuller, shoemaker, juggler, the basket and shield maker, the sailor, fisherman, the hunter of wild animals and of birds, and the weaver. The four castes do not live together with them in one and the same place. These guilds live near the village and towns of the four castes, but outside them. – pg 101 (people of low caste identified by their profession – so it was the profession that was looked down upon)

The people called Hadi, Doma (Domba), Candala, and Badhatau (sic) are not reckoned amongst any caste or guild. They are occupied with dirty work, like the cleansing of the villages and other services. They are considered as one sole class, and distinguished only by their occupations. In fact, they are considered like illegitimate children ; for according to general opinion

they descend from a Sudra father and a Brahmani mother as the children of fornication; therefore they are degraded outcasts. – pg 101-102 ( Lowest caste were the ones dealing with scavenging / dirty work activity)

Of the classes beneath the castes, the Hadi are the best spoken of, because they keep themselves free from everything unclean. Next follow the Doma, who play on the lute and sing. The still lower classes practise as a trade killing and the inflicting of judicial punishments. The worst of all are the Badhatau, who not only devour the flesh of dead animals, but even of dogs and other beasts. – pg 102 (The respect accorded to each class / caste was directly related to their cleanliness and disrespect to lowest in the rung due to their dealing with scavenging occupation)

about the nature of the four castes and what must be their moral qualities, whereupon Vasudeva answered : "The Brahmana must have an ample intellect, a quiet heart, truthful speech, much patience; he must be master of his senses, a lover of justice, of evident purity, always directed upon worship, entirely bent upon religion, " The Kshatriya must fill the hearts with terror, must

be brave and high-minded, must have ready speech and a liberal hand, not minding dangers, only intent upon carrying the great tasks of his calling to a happy end, " The Vaisya is to occupy himself with agriculture, with the acquisition of cattle, and with trade. "The Suidra is to endeavour to render services and attention to each of the preceding classes, in order to make himself liked by them.

" If each member of these castes adheres to his customs and usages, he will obtain the happiness he wishes for, supposing that he is not negligent in the worship of God, not forgetting to remember him in his most important avocations. But if anybody wants to quit the works and duties of his caste and adopt those of another caste, even if it would bring a certain honour to the latter, it is a sin, because it is a transgression of the rule." – pg 103 (Duties are assigned to each caste and migration to other caste is not allowed)

Hindus differ among themselves as to which of these castes is capable of attaining to liberation ; for according to some, only the Brahmana and Kshatriya are capable of it, since the others cannot learn the Veda, whilst according to the Hindu philosophers, liberation is common to all castes and to the whole human race, if their intention of obtaining it is perfect. This view is based on the saying of Vyasa : " Learn to know the twenty-five things thoroughly. Then you may follow whatever religion you like; you will no doubt be liberated." This view is also based on the fact that Vasudeva was a descendant of a Sudra family, and also on the following saying of his, which he addressed to Arjuna: "God distributes recompense without injustice and without partiality. He reckons the good as bad if people in doing good forget him; he reckons the bad as good if people in doing bad remember

him and do not forget him, whether those people be Vaisya or Sudra or women. How much more will this be the case when they are Brahmana or Kshatriya." – pg 104 (difference of opinion in attainment of highest goal by all castes; whilst hindu sages in favour of the whole human race capable of attainment of highest goal irrespective of religion and caste provided basics are adhered to; Krishna belonging to Shudra Caste) 

Chap 10 : ON THE SOURCE OF THEIR RELIGIOUS AND CIVIL LAW, ON PROPHETS, AND ON THE QUESTION WHETHER SINGLE LAWS CAN BE ABROGATED OR NOT.

THE ancient Greeks received their religious and civil laws from sages among them who were called to the work, and of whom their countrymen believed that they received divine help, like Solon, Draco, Pythagoras, Minos, and others. – pg 105 (Greeks received laws from Sages)

Romans sent messengers to the Athenians, and received from them the laws in twelve books, under which they lived till the rule of Pompilius (Numa). – pg 105 (Romans received laws from Greeks)

Such was the case with the Greeks, and it is precisely the same with the Hindus.- pg 106 (Hindus formed the laws in similar way to Greeks ie from Sages)

For they believe that their religious law and its single precepts derive their origin from Rishis, their sages, the pillars of their religion,  and not from the prophet, i.e. Narayana, who, when coming into this world, appears in some human figure. –pg 106 (Laws from Sages / Philosophers / men and not God)

But he only comes in order to cut away some evil matter which threatens the world, or to set the world right again when anything has gone wrong. Further, no law can be exchanged or replaced by another, for they use the laws simply as they find them. Therefore they can dispense with prophets, as far as law and worship are concerned, though in other affairs of the creation

they sometimes want them.  – pg 106-107 ( God takes birth to set the things right but no laws can be changed or replaced – Gods need to use the same laws – moreover Hindus can dispense with Gods as far as Law and Worship is concerned)

As for the question of the abrogation of laws, it seems that this is not impossible with the Hindus, for they say that many things which are now forbidden were allowed before the coming of Vasudeva, e.g. the flesh of cows. Such changes are necessitated by the change of the nature of man, and by their being too feeble to bear the whole burden of their duties. To these changes also belong the changes of the matrimonial system and of the theory of descent. – pg 107 ( Laws can be changed with time as nature of man changes)

All these customs have now been abolished and abrogated, and therefore we may infer from their tradition that in principle the abrogation of a law is allowable. – pg 108

Relative customs in pre-islamic Arabia, Jews, Irainian and comparative superiority of Islam – pg 109-110

Chap 11 : ABOUT THE BEGINNING OF IDOL-WORSHIP, AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL IDOLS.

It is well known that the popular mind leans towards the sensible world, and has an aversion to the world of abstract thought which is only understood by highly educated people, of whom in every time and every place there are only few. – pg 111 (Origin of Idol worship in nature of man)

Origin of idol worship in various communities –pg 111-112

we shall now mention their ludicrous views ; but we declare at once that they are held only by the common uneducated people. For those who march on the path to liberation, or those who study philosophy and theology, and who desire abstract truth which they call sara, are entirely free from worshipping anything but God alone, and would never dream of worshipping an image manufactured to represent him. – pg 113 (idol worship common among uneducated people but not so in educated ones)

Story on why Hindus started worshipping idols – pg 113-116

Destruction of temples at Multan, Taneshar, Somnath, - pg 116-117

Idol making rules – pg 118-121

such idols are erected only for uneducated low-class people of little understanding ; that the Hindus never made an idol of any supernatural being, much less of God; and, lastly, to show how the crowd is kept  in thraldom by all kinds of priestly tricks and

deceits. – pg 122 (idol worship for the common uneducated people)

the book Gita says : " Many people try to approach me in their aspirations through something which is different from me ; they try to insinuate themselves into my favour by giving alms, praise, and prayer to something besides me. I, however, confirm and help them in all these doings of theirs, and make them attain the object of their wishes, because I am able to dispense with them."

In the same book Vasudeva speaks to Arjuna : " Do you not see that most of those who wish for something address themselves in offering and worshipping to the several classes of spiritual beings, and to the sun, moon, and other celestial bodies ? If now God does not disappoint their hopes, though he in no way stands in need of their worship, if he even gives them more than they asked for, and if he gives them their wishes in such a way as though they were receiving them from that to which they had addressed their prayers—viz. the idol—they will proceed to worship those whom they address, because they have not learned to know him, whilst he, by admitting this kind of intermediation, carries their affairs to the desired end. But that which is obtained by desires and intermediation is not lasting, since it is only as much as is deserved for any particular merit. Only that is lasting which is obtained from God alone, when people are disgusted with old age, death, and birth (and desire to be delivered therefrom

by Mokska)." – pg 122 (Krishna making a case against idol worship)

This is what Vasudeva says. When the ignorant crowd get a piece of good luck by accident or something at which they had aimed, and when with this some of the preconcerted tricks of the priests are brought into connection, the darkness in which they live increases vastly, not their intelligence. They will rush to those figures of idols, maltreating their own figures before them by shedding their own blood and mutilating their  own bodies. – pg 123 (Krishna making a case against idol worship)

The ancient Greeks, also, considered the idols as mediators between themselves and the First Cause and

worshipped them under the names of the stars and the highest substances.– pg 123 (parallel with Greeks)

Plato says in the fourth chapter of the Book of Laws: " I t is necessary to any one who gives perfect honours (to the gods) that he should take trouble with the mystery of the gods and Sakinat, and that he should not make special idols masters over the ancestral gods. Further, it is the greatest duty to give honours as much as possible to the parents while they live." By mystery Plato means a special kind of devotion. – pg 123 (Greeks devotion to gods and respect to parents and ancestors)

There is a treatise of Aristotle in which he answers certain questions of the Brahmins which Alexander had sent him. There he says : " If you maintain that some Greeks have fabled that the idols speak, that the people offer to them and think them to be spiritual beings, of all this we have no knowledge, and we cannot give a sentence on a subject we do not know." – pg 124 (Correspondence between Brahmins and Greeks – ancient Greeks believing that idols speak – to which Aristotle admits ignorance)

It is evident that the first cause of idolatry was the desire of commemorating the dead and of consoling the living; but on this

basis it has developed, and has finally become a foul and pernicious abuse. – pg 124

Chap 12 : ON THE VEDA, THE PURINAS, AND OTHER KINDS OF THEIR NATIONAL LITERATURE.

 The Brahmins recite the Veda without understanding its meaning, and in the same way they learn it by heart, the one receiving

it from the other….. The Vaisya and Sudra are not allowed to hear it, much less to pronounce and recite it. If such a thing can be proved against one of them, the Brahmins drag him before the magistrate, and he is punished by having his tongue cut off. – pg 125 (Vedas preserved by oral recitation – Vaishya and Sudras not allowed to even hear it – stress on its purity)

Of Vedas – first Veda written in Kashmir by Vasukra – and Puranas – pg 125-131

On the process of becoming god and seeking liberation from the world ….the book of Patanjali, on the search for liberation and for the union of the soul with the object of its meditation ;– pg 131-132 (becoming God)

Various other books of Hindus – pg 132

Mahabharata – pg 133

Chap – 13 : THEIR GEAMMATICAL AND METRICAL LITERATURE

vyakarana, i.e. the law of the correctness of their speech and etymological rules, by means of which they acquire an eloquent and classical style both in writing and reading. – pg 135

Grammar is followed by another science, called chandas, i.c. the metrical form of poetry, corresponding to our mctrics^—a science indispensable to them, since ^Q their books are in verse. By composing their books in  metrcs they intend to facilitate their being learned by heart, and to prevent people in all questions of science ever recurring to a written text, save in a case

of bare necessity. For they think that the mind of man sympathises with everything in which there is symmetry and order, and has an aversion to everything in which there is no order. Therefore most Hindus are passionately fond of their verses, and always desirous of reciting them, even if they do not understand the meaning of the words, and the audience will snap their fingers in token of joy and applause. – pg 137 

Grammar explained in detail – having mathematical methodology – pg 137-151 (beyond my comprehension – but can be of great interest to any linguist)

As far as I can guess with regard to the literature of the Greeks, they used in their poetry similar feet to the Hindus – pg 151 (Greek Parallel)

Chap 14 : HINDU LITERATURE IN THE OTHER SCIENCES, ASTRONOMY, ASTROLOGY, ETC.

Discusses various books and authors and mentions exchange of ideas with Greeks and Romans

But there is another book still larger than this, which comprehends the whole of astrological sciences, called Yavana, i.e. belonging to the Greeks. – pg 158

Mediciue belongs to the same class of sciences as astronomy, but there is this difference, that the latter stands in close relation to the religion of the Hindus. They have a book called by the name of its author, i.e. Caraka, which they consider as the best of their

whole literature on medicine. ……This book has been translated into Arabic for the princes of the house of the Barmecides. – pg 159

The Hindus cultivate numerous other branches of science and literature, and have a nearly boundless literature. I, however, could not comprehend it with my knowledge – pg 159 (Vastness of knowledge)

I wish I could translate the book Panchantra, known among us as the book of Kalila and Dimna, It is far spread in various languages, in Persian, Hindi, and Arabic – pg 159 (Panchantra)

Chap 15 : NOTES ON HINDU METROLOGY, INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE UNDERSTANDING OF ALL KINDS OF MEASUREMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN THIS BOOK.

Discusses various measuring methods and also value of pie

Chap 16 : NOTES ON THE WRITING OF THE HINDUS, ON THEIR ARITHMETIC AND RELATED SUBJECTS, AND ON CERTAIN STRANGE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THEIRS.

The Hindus are not in the habit of writing on hides, like the Greeks in ancient times. Socrates, on being asked why he did not compose books, gave this reply: " I do not transfer knowledge from the living hearts of men to the dead hides of sheep." – pg 170 (most knowledge transferred orally)

It was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper into Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want. – pg 171 (introduction of paper)

Of writing and writing pads – pg 170-173

The most generally known alphabet is called Siddhamatrika, which is by some considered as originating the Hindus.

from Kashmir, for the people of Kashmir use it. But it is also used in Varanasi, This town and Kashmir are the high schools of Hindu sciences. – pg 173 (Kashmir and Varanasi – being the centres of Hindu learning)

The numeral signs which we use are derived from the finest forms of the Hindu signs – pg 174 (Hindu numerals)

In arithmetic all nations agree that all the orders of numbers (e.g. one, ten, hundred, thousand) stand in a certain relation to the ten; that each order is the tenth part of the following and the tenfold of the preceding. I have studied the names of the orders of the numbers in various languages with all kinds of people with whom I have been in contact, and have found that no nation goes beyond the thousand. The Arabs, too, stop with the thousand, which is certainly the most correct and the most natural thing to do. I have written a separate'treatise on this subject.

Those, however, who go beyond the thousand in their numeral system are the Hindus, at least in their arithmetical technical terms, which have been either freely invented or derived according to certain etymologies, whilst in others both methods are blended together. They extend the names of the orders of numbers until the 18th order for religious reasons, the mathematicians

being assisted by the grammarians with all kinds of etymologies. – pg 174 (comparison between Hindus and other nations regarding the relative use of numbers – Hindus were counting till 10 to the power of 18 whereas other nations were stuck in thousands)

The Hindus use the numeral signs in arithmetic in the same way as we do. I have composed a treatise showing how far, possibly, the Hindus are ahead of us in this subject. – pg 177 ( Hindus ahead of Arabs in mathematics)

Many Hindu customs differ from those of our country and of our time to such a degree as to appear to us simply monstrous. One might almost think that they had intentionally changed them into the opposite, for our customs do not resemble theirs, but are the very reverse; and if ever a custom of theirs resembles one of ours, it has certainly just the opposite meaning. – pg 179 (Hindu customs opposite to that of muslims)

'They have red teeth in consequence of chewing arecanuts with betel-leaves and chalk. – pg 180 (chewing paan an old custom)

In all consultations and emergencies they take the advice of the women – pg 181 (respect for women).

Trying to state the superiority of Islam over Hinduism and pre-Islamic Arabs – pg 185-86

Chap  17 : ON HINDU SGIENCKS WHICH PKEY ON THE IGNOEANGE OF PEOPLE

Denouncing Alchemy which is present in all nations of the day – pg 187-188

Super natural stories about alchemy– pg 189-192

Alchemy leading to superstition among Hindus – pg 192

As regards charms and incantations, the Hindus have a firm belief in them, and they, as a rule, are much inclined towards them.- pg 192 (superstition)

Charms / sorcerery common to all nations – pg 195

Chap 18 : VARIOUS NOTES ON THEIR COUNTRY, THEIR RIVERS, AND THEIR OCEAN, ITINERARIES OF THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THEIR SEVERAL KINGDOMS, AND BETWEEN THE BOUNDARIES OF THEIR COUNTRY

On the plains of this continent live the western negroes, whence the slaves are brought; - pg 197 (Islamic trade in slaves)

Topography of the country – pg 197-212

The Brahmins have the privilege of eating the flesh of the ganda – pg 204

In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country, particularly Jews, but at present they do not allow any Hindu whom they do not know personally to enter, much less other people- pg 206 (Kashmiri insular)

Some of the inhabitants of the Wdkwdk island are of black colour. In our countries there is a great demand for them as slaves. – pg 211 (slavery in Islam)

Chap 19 : ON THE NAMES OF THE PLANETS, THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC, TIIE LUNAR STATIONS, AND RELATED SUBJECTS

Chap 20 : ON THE BRAHMANDA

BEAHMANDA means the egg of Brahman, and applies in reality to the whole ot heaven (a.iOrjp), on account ot its its coming

being round, …In consequence, they believe that the earth is at rest,..According to the enigmatic expressions of their tradition, the water was before every other thing, and it filled the space of the whole world. – pg 221 (Earth Round but stationary and water being the first element)

Similar opinions were held by the ancient Greeks regarding Asclepius, the inventor of the medical art; for, according to Galenus, they represent him as holding an egg in his hand, whereby they mean to indicate that the world is round, the egg an image of the universe, - pg 222 (parallel with Greeks)

Asclepius does not hold a lower position in the belief of the Greeks than Brahman in the belief of the Hindus, for they say that he is a divine power, and that his name is derived from his action – pg 222 (parallel with Greeks)

The theory of the Hindus, that the water existed before all creation, rests on this, that it is the cause of the cohesion of the atoms of everything, the cause of the growing of everything, and of the duration of life in every animated being. Thus the water is an instrument in the hand of the Creator when he wants to create something out of matter. – pg 222 (importance of water – life from water)

So Plato says in his Timmus something like the Brahmanda : " The Creator cut a straight thread into halves. With each of them he described a circle, so that the two circles met in two places, and one of them he divided into seven parts." – pg 223 (parallel with Greeks)

The commentor Balabhadra says : " We do not consider these numbers as a measure of heaven, for we cannot define its greatness, but we consider them as the utmost limit to which the human power of vision can penetrate. There is no possibility of human perception reaching above it ; but the other spheres differ from each other in greatness and smallness, so as to be visible in various degrees." – pg 225 (acceptance of their limitations)

The followers of Aryabhata say : " I t is sufficient for us to know the space which is reached by the solar rays. We do not want the space which is not reached by the solar rays, though it be in itself of an enormous extent. That which is not reached by the

rays is not reached by the perception of the senses, and that which is not reached by perception is not knowable." – pg 225 (acceptance of their limitations)

one might almost think that they had a knowledge of the words of Aristotle which we have quoted – pg 226 (exchange of information with Greeks)

Chap 21 : DESCRIPTION OF EARTH AND HEAVEN ACCORDING TO THE RELIGIOUS VIEWS OF THE HINDUS, BASED UPON THEIR TRADITIONAL LITERATURE.

After the earths follow the heavens, consisting of seven stories, one above the other. They are called loka, which means " gather ing-place." In a similar manner also the Greeks considered the heavens as gathering- places – pg 231 (Hindus considered universe made of seven stories – similar to Greeks)

The poet Homer says: " Thou hast made the pure heaven an eternal dwelling-place for the gods. The winds do not shake it, the rains do not

wet it, and the snow does not destroy it. For in it there is resplendent clearness without any covering cloud."Plato says : " God spoke to the seven planets : You are the gods of the gods, and I am the father of the actions; I am he who made you so that no dissolution is possible; for anything bound, though capable of being loosened, is not exposed to destruction, as long as its order is good."

Aristotle says in his letter to Alexander: " The world is the order of the whole creation. That which is above the world, and surrounds it on the sides, is the dwelling-place of the gods. Heaven is full of the gods to which we give the name of stars." In another place of the same book he says, " The earth is bounded by the water, the water by the air, the air by the fire, the fire by the aWrjp. Therefore the highest place is the dwelling-place of the gods, and the lowest, the home of the aquatic animals." – pg 231-232 (similar thought of Greeks)

There is a similar passage in the Vayu-Purana to this effect, that the earth is held in its grasp by the water, the water by the pure fire, the fire by the wind, the wind by heaven, and heaven by its lord. – pg 232 (parallel to Greeks)

According to the religious traditions of the Hindus, the earth on which we live is round and surrounded by a sea. – pg 233

Hindu gave dimensions to the heaven, earth and hell – pg 236

Chap 22 : TRADITIONS RELATING TO THE POLE

Mythological stories around stars

Chap 23 : ON MOUNT MERU ACCORDING TO THE BELIEF OF THE AUTHORS OF THE PURANAS AND OF OTHERS.

Brahmagupta says: " Manifold are the opinions of people relating to the description of the earth and to Mount Meru, particularly

among those who study the Puranas and the religious literature. Some describe this mountain as rising above the surface of the earth to an excessive height. I t is situated under the pole, and the stars revolve round its foot, so that rising and setting depends upon Meru. It is called Meru because of its having the faculty of doing this, and because it depends alone upon the influence of its head that sun and moon become visible. The day of the angels who inhabit Meru lasts six months, and their night also six

months." – pg 243 (North Pole?)

The Matsya-Purana says : ….It has four different colours on its four sides. The colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of the Brahmins, that of the northern is red like that of the Kshatriya, that of the southern is yellow like the colour of the Vaisya, and that of the western is black like the colour of the Sudra. …pg 247 (all varnas represented by 4 sides of mount meru)

Similar views are held by the Zoroastrians of Sogdiana, viz. that the mountain Ardiya surrounds the world ; that outside of it is khom, similar to the pupil of the eye, in which there is something of everything, and that behind it there is a vacuum. – pg 249 (similar reasoning to Mount Meru existed in other civilazations)

(Hindus were not afraid to think big and put the numbers to the un-known phenomena. They conceptualized Mount Meru in order to explain the cosmological unknowns. They included science with religion and different texts gave different explanations.I would relate the conceptualization of Mount Meru with String Theory – where scientists bring in imaginary concepts to provide explanation for the unknown)

Chap 24 : TRADITIONS OF THE PURANAS REGARDING EACH OF THE SEVEN  DVIPAS.

….Kusa Dvipa has seven kingdoms and innumerable rivers flowing to the sea, which are then changed by Indra into rain.- pg 254 (concept of evaporation / condensation??)

Various divapas are mythologised, each with its own society. Most of them having their own varna (caste) system and one not having any.

Chap 25 : ON THE RIVERS OF INDIA, THEIR SOURCES AND COURSES

Chap 26 : ON THE SHAPE OF HEAVEN AND EARTH ACCORDING TO THE HINDU ASTRONOMERS

Together with the inventions of the above mentioned Judaistic party, they formed a religious system which was declared to be the Islam, but with which God has nothing whatever to do. Whoso opposes it and firmly adheres to the orthodox faith in conformity

with the Koran is stigmatised by them as an infidel and heretic and condemned to death, and they will not allow him to hear the word of the Koran – pg 264 (Islam intolerant even then)

The religious books of the Hindus and their codes of tradition, the Puranas, contain sentences about the shape of the world which stand in direct opposition to scientific truth as known to their astronomers. By these books people are guided in fulfilling the rites of their religion, and by means of them the great mass of the nation have been wheedled into a predilection for astronomical calculation and astrological predictions and warnings. The consequence is, that they show much affection to their astronomers, declaring that they are excellent men, that it is a good omen to meet them, and firmly believing that all of them come into Paradise and none into hell. …… This is the reason why the two theories, the vulgar and the scientific, have become intermingled in the course of time, why the doctrine  doctrines of the astronomers have been disturbed and confused …. Pg 264 – 65 (Hindu science and religious texts were opposite as far as astronomy was concerned – but ordinary Hindus respected scientist despite opposing religious views – contrast that with Christian theology and treatment meted out to Gallilio)

(As scientists were respected so they mixed religious mumbo-jumbo into their works – hence both religion and science co-existed peacefully and this even led to confused scientific texts).

We shall now explain the views of Hindu astronomers regarding the present subject, viz. the shape of heaven and earth. According to them, heaven as well as the whole world is round, and the earth has a globular shape, the northern half being dry land, the southern half being covered with water. The dimension of the earth is larger according to them than it is according to the Greeks and modern observations, and in their calculations to find this dimension they have entirely given up any mention of the traditional seas and Dvipas, and of the enormous sums of yojana attributed to each of them. The astronomers follow the theologians in everything which does not encroach upon their science, e.g. they adopt the theory of Mount Meru being under the north pole, and that of the island Vadaviimukha lying under the south pole. Now, it is entirely irrelevant whether Meru is there or not, as it is only required for the explanation of the particular mill-like rotation, which is necessitated by the fact that to each spot on the plane of the earth corresponds a spot in the sky as its zenith. Also the fable of the southern island Vadavamukha does no harm to their science, although it is possible, nay, even likely, that each pair of quarters of the earth forms a coherent, uninterrupted unity, the one as a continent, the other as an ocean (and that in reality there is no such island under the south pole). Such a disposition of the earth is required by the law of gravitation, for according to them the earth is in the centre of the universe, and everything heavy gravitates towards it. Evidently on account of this law of gravitation they consider heaven, too, as

having a globular shape. – pg 266 (Hindus believed earth to be round – globe shaped. In order to know the shape they did NOT take into account the assumed sea or mount Meru – scientist follow religion but do NOT allow religious mumbo-jumbo to influence their work. Hindus conceptualized Mount Meru in order to explain certain observations )

All Hindu scholars (Varahamihira, Aryabhata, Deva, Srishena, Vishnucandra, Brahman, Vasishtha and Lata) ,agree on the globular shape of the earth – as no other shape could explain the observable phenomena; concept of equator, two pole, axis, different time zones,  – pg 266-269

Equator, Island in South (Antartica?) and Mount Meru in North; Northen hemisphere consisting of land and Southern hemisphere consisting of sea – though there are exceptions. Gravitation - attraction  of everything towards the centre of earth – pg 269 – 271

Hindus had the concept of gravitation ie attraction towards the centre of earth, round shape of earth but earth was considered as the centre of universe.

Brahmagupta says in another place of the same book : "The followers of Aryabhata maintain that the earth is moving and heaven resting. People have tried to refute them by saying that, if such were the case, stones and trees would fall from the earth." – pg 276-77 (Aryabhata says it is the earth that moves)

Chap 27 : ON THE FIRST TWO MOTIONS OF THE UNIVERSE (THAT FROM EAST TO WEST ACCOEDING TO ANCIENT

ASTRONOMERS AND THE PEECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES), BOTH ACCORDING TO HINDU ASTRONOMERS AND THE AUTHORS OF THE PURANAS,

…but some people think that the earth moves while the sun is resting. – pg 280

Chap 28 : ON THE DEFINITION OF THE TEN DIRECTIONS

The Hindus can never speak of anything, be it an object of the intellect or of imagination, without representing it as a personification, an individual. They at once marry him, make him celebrate marriage, make his wife become pregnant and give birth to something. So, too, in this case. The Vishnu-Dharma relates that Atri, the star who rules the stars of the Great Bear,

married the directions, represented as one person, though they are eight in number, and that from her the moon was born. Another author relates : Dakska, i.e. Prajapati, married Dharma, i.e. the reward, to ten of his daughters, i.e. the ten directions. From one of them he had many children. She was called Vasu, and her children the Vasus. One of them was the moon.

No doubt our people, the Muslims, will laugh at such a birth of the moon. But I give them still more of this stuff. Thus, e.g. they relate : The sun, the son of Kasyapa and of Aditya, his wife, was born in the sixth Manvantara on the lunar station Visakha ; the moon, the son of Dharma, was born on the station Krittika; Mars, the son of Prajapati, on Purvashadha ; Mercury, the son of

the moon, on Dhanishtha ; Jupiter, the son of Angiras, on Piirvaphalguni; Venus, the daughter of Bhrigu, on Pushya ; Saturn on Revati; the Bearer of the Tail, the son of Yama, the angel of death, on Aslesha, and the Head on Revati. – pg 291 (rationale of hindu mythology)

Chap 29 : DEFINITION OF THE INHABITABLE EARTH ACCORDING TO THE HINDUS.

IN the book of the Rishi Bhuvanakosa we read that the inhabitable world stretches from Himavant towards the south, and is called Bharata-varsha, so called from a man, Bharata, who ruled over them and provided for them. The inhabitants of this olKovp-ev-q are those to whom alone reward and punishment in another life are destined. – pg 294 (Bharat)

According to him, therefore, there are no human beings outside the  Bharatavarsha – pg 294 (whole humanity as Bharat).

Bharatavarsha is not India alone, as Hindus think, according to whom their country is the world, and their race the only race of mankind; …..Further, it follows from his statement that all the inhabitants of the earth and the Hindus are subject to reward

and punishment, that they are one great religious community. Pg 295 (universality – everyone is Hindu subject to same laws)

All these countries are parts of India proper. – pg 298 (various states like Mathura, Magdha, Kalinga, etc r part of India)

In what way the Hindus determine the latitude of a place has not come to our knowledge. That the longitude of the inhabitable world is a half-circle is a far-spread theory among their astronomers; they differ (from Western astronomers) only as to the point which is to be its beginning – pg 304.(Hindus in step with latest other developments in other parts of world)

Chap 30 : ON LANKA, OR THE CUPOLA OF THE EAETH

The Hindus who are the neighbours of those regions (of Lanka) believe that the small-pox is a wind blowing from the island of Lanka towards the continent to carry off souls. – pg 309 (superstition regarding Lanka)

And this my conjecture is strengthened by the fact that, according to the book of Rama and Ramayana, behind the well-known country of Sindh there are cannibals. Pg 310 (fear of people outside  the boundary of India)

Chap 31 : ON THAT DIFFERENCE OF VARIOUS PLACES WHICH WE CALL THE DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE

This method of calculation is found in the astronomical handbooks of the Hindus in conformity with the account of Alfazari, save in one particular. – pg 315 (exchange of information or borrowing of Hidu methodoly by muslim scholars – howsoever wrong it may be)

We, however have found a totally different latitude of Ujain in the same book in a calculation relating to the distance between Ujain and Almansura, which the author calls Brahmanavata, i.e. Bamhanwa, viz. latitude of Ujain, 22° 2 9 ' ; latitude of Almanshra, 24° i'……On the other hand, however, all the canons of the Hindus agree in this, that the latitude of Ujain is 24

degrees, and that the sun culminates over it at the time of the summer solstice..     pg 316 - 317 (pretty accurate Ujain latitude is 23deg 1 min)

Balabhadra, the commentator, gives as the latitude of Kanoj 26° 3 5 '- pg 317 (actual latitude is 27 deg) ;

The learned Abu-Ahmad, the son of Catlaghtagin, calculated the latitude of the city of Karli (?), and found it to be 28° o', that of Taneshar 27', and both places to be distant from each other by three days' marches.- pg 317 (muslim scholars travelling

According to the book Karanasdra, the latitude of Kashmir is 34° 9', pg 317 (actual latitude of Srinagar  is 34 deg)

Chap 32 : ON THE NOTIONS OF DURATION AND TIME IN GENERAL, AND ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD AND ITS

DESTRUCTION

Plato in the book Timceus: "The 6eot, i.e. the gods, who, according to an order of their father, carried out the creation of man, took an immortal soul and made it the beginning; thereupon they fashioned like a turner a mortal body upon it." – pg 322 (Greek thought on origin of universe)

According to them, this duration is a day of Brahman and a consecutive night of Brahman ; for Brahman is intrusted with creating. Further, the coming into existence is a motion in that which grows out of something different from itself, and the most apparent of the causes of this motion are the meteoric motors, i.e. the stars. These, however, will never exercise regular influences on the world below them unless they move and change their shapes in every direction ( = their aspects). Therefore the coming into existence is limited to the day of Brahman, because in it only, as the Hindus believe, the stars are moving and their spheres revolving according to their pre-established order, and in consequence the process of coming into existence is developed on the surface of the earth without any interruption.

On the contrary, during the night of Brahman the spheres rest from their motions, and all the stars, as well as their apsides and nodes, stand still in one particular place.

In consequence all the affairs of the earth are in one and the same unchanging condition, therefore the coming into existence has ceased, because he who makes things come into existence rests. So both the processes of acting and of being acted upon are suspended; the elements rest from entering into new metamorphoses and combinations, as they rest now in (lacuna; perhaps: the

night), and they prepare themselves to belong to new beings, which will come into existence on the following

day of Brahman. In this way existence circulates during the life of Brahman

According to these notions of the Hindus, creation and destruction only refer to the surface of the earth, By such a creation, not one piece of clay comes into existence which did not exist before, and by such a destruction not one piece of clay which exists ceases to exist. It is quite impossible that the Hindus should have the notion of a creation as long as they believe that matter existed from all eternity.

The Hindus represent to their common people the two durations here mentioned, the day of Brahman and the night of Brahman, as his waking and sleeping ; and we do not disapprove of these terms, as they denote something which has a beginning and end. Further, the whole of the life of Brahman, consisting of a succession of motion and rest in the world during such a period, is considered as applying only to existence, not to non-existence, since during it the piece of clay exists and, besides, also its shape. The life of Brahman is only a clay for that being who is above him, i.e. Purusha (cf.chap. XXXV.). When he dies all compounds are dissolved during his night, and in consequence of the annihilation of the compounds, that also is suspended which kept him (Brahman) within the laws of nature. This, then, is the rest of Purusha, and of all that is under his control (lit. and of his vehicles).

Therefore the educated Hindus do not share these opinions (regarding the waking and sleeping of Brahman), for they know the real nature of sleep. They know that the body, a compound of antipathetic humores, requires sleep for the purpose of resting, and for this purpose that all which nature requires, after being wasted, should be duly replaced. – pg 322 – 324 (Hindu theory on creation and destruction of universe)

Chap 33 : ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF THE DAY OR NYCHTHE.MERON, AND ON DAY AND NIGHT IN PARTICULAR.

ACCORDING to the general usage of Muslims, Hindus, and others, a day or nychthemeron means the duration of one revolution of the sun in a rotation of the universe, in which he starts from the one half of a great circle and returns to the same. Apparently it is divided into two halves : the day (i.e. the time of the sun's being visible to the inhabitants of a certain place on earth), and the night (i.e. the time of his being invisible to them). His being visible and being invisible are relative facts, which differ as the horizons differ. – pg 327 (Most scholars were of the opinion that Sun revolves around earth)

I t is well known that the horizon of the equator, which the Hindus call the country without latitude, cuts the circles parallel to the meridian in two halves. In consequence, day and night are always equal there. However, the horizons which cut the parallel circles without passing through their pole divide them into two unequal halves, the more so the smaller the parallel circles are. In consequence, there day and night are unequal, except at the times of the two equinoxes, when on the whole earth, except Mem and Vadavamukha, day and night are equal. Then all the places north and south of the line share in this peculiarity of the line, but only at this time, not at any other. – pg 327 (Equinoxes, Equator)

For those who live under the north pole the sun appears above the horizon, therefore they have day, whilst for those living under the south pole the sun is concealed below the horizon, and therefore they have night. When, then, the sun migrates to the southern signs, he revolves like a mill below the horizon (i.e.south of the equator); hence it is night to the people living under the north pole and day to those living under the south pole. – pg 329 ( day and night at poles)

The length of the nychthemeron of Brahman is 8,640,000,000 of our years. During one half of it, i.e. during the day, the tether, with all that is in it, is moving, the earth is producing, and the changes of existence and destruction are constantly going on upon the surface of the earth. During the other half, i.e. the night, there occurs the opposite of everything which occurs in the day ; the earth is not changing, because those things which produce the changes are resting and all motions are stopped, as nature rests in the night and in the winter, and concentrates itself, preparing for a new existence in the day and in the summer. – pg 332 (The complete day of Brahma is 8.6 billion years of which 4.3 billion is day and 4.3 billion is nigh ie earth / cosmos is formed in 4.3 billion years ago – this corresponds well with modern calculation of the age of earth which is near to 4.5 billion years – important thing is that Hindu were thinking in in billions of years whereas others were stuck in thousands)

The Hindus agree in assigning to the life of Brahman a hundred of his years. The number of our years which corresponds to one of his years betrays itself to be a multiplication of 360 with the number of our years, which correspond to one nychthemeron of his. We have already mentioned (p. 331) the length of the nychthemeron of Brahman. Now the length of a year of Brahman is 3,110,400,000,000 of our years (i.e. 360 X 8,640,000,000). A hundred years of the same kind, reckoned in our years, are represented by the same number increased by two ciphers, so that you get in the whole ten ciphers, viz. 311,040,000,000,000.

This space of time is a day of Purusha; therefore his nychthemeron is double of it, viz. 622,080,000,000,000 of our years.

These terms must, on the whole, be rather considered as a philosophical means of conveying an abstract notion of time than as mathematical values composed of the various kinds of numbers, for they are derived from the processes of combination and dissolution, of procreation and destruction. – pg 332-333 (thought process running into trillions)

Chap 34 : ON THE DIVISION OF THE NYCHTHEMERON INTO MINOR PARTICLES OF TIME.

THE Hindus are foolishly painstaking in inventing the most minute particles of time, but their efforts have not resulted in a universally adopted and uniform system. – pg 334 (division of time into smallest possible unit)

In the first instance, the nychthemeron is divided into sixty minutes or ghati…… Each minutc is divided into sixty seconds, called

cashaka or cakhaka, and also vighatika… Each sccoud is divided into six parts or prdna, i.e. breath. – pg 334.

I t is all the same whether we determine the prana according to this rule (one nychthemeron = 21,600 prana), or if we divide each ghati into 360 parts (60 X 360 = 21,600), or each degree of the sphere into sixty parts (360 X 60 = 21,600).

The whole day (24 hours) is divided maximum  into 88,473,600 anu  - pg 337

Nobody in India uses the hours except the astrologers for they speak of the dominants of the hours, and, in consequence,

also of dominants of the nychthemera. ….. They call the hour hora, and this name seems to indicate that in reality they use the horce obliquce temporales; for the Hindus call the media signorum (the centres of the signs of the zodiac) hora, which we Muslims call nimbahr (cf. chap. Ixxx.). The reason is this, that in each day and each night always six signs rise above the horizon. If, therefore, the hour is called by the name of the centre of a sign, each day and each night has twelve hours, and in consequence the hours used in the theory of the dominants of the hours are horce obliquce temporales, as they are used in our country and are inscribed on the astrolabes on account of these dominants. – pg 343 (Hour)

Chap 35 : ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONTHS AND YEARS

A month has 30 lunar days, for this number is canonical, as the number of 360 is canonical for the number of days of a year. The solar month has 30 solar days and 30   1,362, 987/3,110,400 civil days.

The month of the fathers is equal to 30 of our months, and has 885   163,410/ 178,111 civil days.

The month of the angels is equal to 30 years, and has 10 , 9 5 7    241/320  civil days.

The month of Brahman is equal to 60 kalpas, and has 94,674,987,000,000 civil days.

The month of Purusha is equal to 2,160,000 kalpas, and has 3,408,299,532,000,000,000 civil days.

The month of Kha has 9,497,498,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 civil days.

Various By multiplying each of these months by twelve, we get the number of days of the corresponding year.

The lunar year has 354    65,364/  178,111 civil days.

The solar year has 365  827/ 3200 civil days.

The year of the fathers has 360 lunar months, or 10,631  1699/178,111 civil days.

The year of the angels has 360 of our years, or 131,493  3/80 civil days.

The year of Brahman has 720 kalpas, or 1,136,099,844,000,000 civil days.

The year of Purusha has 25,920,000 kalpas, or 40,899,594,384,000,000,000 civil days.

The year of Kha has 113,6o9,984,4co,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooocivildays.

-pg 350 ( Hindus were not afraid of using numbers ; their calculation of solar year (365.258 days is quite near to the modern calculation of 365.242 days)

The day of Purusha is simply an abstraction of the Hindu mind to denote that which is above the soul (dtman), for they make no distinction between purusha and atman except in the order or sequence in which they enumerate them. – pg 351 (Hindus knew that other imaginary ages are an abstraction of mind)

Chap 36 : ON THE FOUE MEASURES OF TIME CALLED MANA.

the cikitsa, i.e. certain months and years in which Hindu medical science prescribes the taking certain medicines; further in determining the prayascitta, i.e. the days of the expiations which the Brahmans make obligatory for those who have committed some sin, times during which they are obliged to fast and to besmear themselves with butter and dung – pg 355 (days for medical check-ups and to atone for sins committed)

Chap 37 : ON THE PAETS OF THE MONTH AND THE YEAR

Chap 38 : ON THE VAEIOUS MEASUEES OF TIME COMPOSED OF DAYS, THE LIFE OF BEAHMAN INCLUDED.

The book Vishnu-Dharma has a tradition from Markandeya, who answers a question of Vajra in these words: "Kalpa is the day of Brahman, and the same is a night of his. Therefore 720 kalpas are a year of his, and his life has lOO such years. These 100 years are one day of Purusha, and the same is a night of his. How many Brahmans, however, have already preceded Purusha, none knows but he who can count the sand of the Ganges or the drops of the rain," – pg 360 (counting the origin in huge numbers; Brahma having limited life; acceptance of vastness and limit of knowledge)

Chap 39 : ON MEASUEES OF TIME WHICH ARE LARGER THAN THE LIFE OF BEAHMAN,

ALL that is devoid of order or contradicts the rules laid down in the preceding' parts of this book is repulsive to our nature and disagreeable to our ear. But Hindus are people who mention a number of names, all—as they maintain—referring to the One, the First, or to some one behind him who is only hinted at. When they come to a chapter like this, they repeat the same names as denoting a multitude of beings, measuring out lives for them and inventing huge numbers, The latter is all they want; they indulge in it most freely, and numbers are patient, standing as you place them. Besides, there is not a single subject on which

the Hindus themselves agree among each other, and this prevents us on our part adopting the use of it. On the contrary, they disagree on these imaginary measures of time to the same extent as on the divisions of the day which are less than a prana – pg 361 (Inventing huge numbers; disagreeing with each other)

Chap 40 : ON THE SAMDHI, THE INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO PERIODS OF TIME, FOEMING THE CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN

THEM,

Chap 41 : DEFINITION OF THE TEEMS " KALPA " AND " CATUEYUGA," AND AN EXPLICATION OF THE ONE BY THE OTHER.

Chap 42 : ON THE DIVISION OF THE CATUEYUGA INTO YUGAS, AND THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS REGAEDING THE LATTER

As regards the Greeks, we may notice that they have nothing like the tradition of the Smriti, for they do not measure time by yugas, manvantaras, or kalpas – pg 374 (Al Beruni is constantly comparing Hindu sciences with Greeks).

He (Brahmagupta)  is rude enough to compare Aryabhata to a worm which, eating the wood, by chance describes certain characters in it, without understanding them and without intending to draw them, " He, however, who knows these things thoroughly stands opposite to Aryabhata, Srishena, and Vishnucandra like the lion against gazelles. They are not capable of letting him see their faces." In such offensive terms he attacks Aryabhata and maltreats him. – pg 376 (Difference of opinion between Hindu scientists)

Chap 43 : A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOUR YUGAS, AND OF ALL THAT IS EXPECTED TO TAKE PLACE AT THE END OF THE FOURTH YUGA,

(The Greeks and Hindus held the similar belief regarding the birth, sustenance, destruction and rebirth of society)

THE ancient Greeks held regarding the earth various opinions, of which we shall relate one for the sake of an example.

The disasters which from time to time befal the earth both from above and from below, differ in quality and quantity. Frequently it has experienced one so incommensurable in quality or in quantity, or in both together, that there was no remedy against it, and that no flight or caution was of any avail. The catastrophe comes on like a deluge or an earthquake, bringing destruction either by the breaking in of the surface, or by drowning with water which breaks forth, or by burning with hot stones and ashes that are thrown out, by thunderstorms, by landslips, and typhoons ; further, by contagious and other diseases, by pestilence, and more of the like. Thereby a large region is stripped of its inhabitants; but when after a while, after the disaster and its consequences have passed away, the country begins to recover and to show new signs of life, then different people flock there together like wild animals, who formerly were dwelling in hiding-holes and on the tops of the mountains. They become civilised by assisting each other against common foes, wild beasts or men, and furthering each other in the hope for a life in safety and joy. Thus they increase to great numbers ; but then ambition, circling round them with the wings of wrath and envy, begins to disturb the serene bliss of their life.

Sometimes a nation of such a kind derives its pedigree from a person who first settled in the place or distinguished himself by something or other, so that he alone continues to live in the recollection of the succeeding generations, whilst all others beside him are forgotten, Plato mentions in the Book of Laws Zeus, i.e. Jupiter, as the forefather of the Greeks, and to Zeus is traced back the pedigree of Hippocrates, which is mentioned in the last chapters added at the end of the book. We must, however, observe that the pedigree contains only very few generations, not more than fourteen. It is the following :—Hippokrates—Gnosidikos—Nebros—Sostratos — Theodores —• Kleomyttades — Krisamis —Dardanas—Sostratos—Hippolochos—Podaleirios — Machaon—Asclepios—Apollo—Zeus—Kronos, i.e. Saturn. – pg 378 – 379 (Greek View)

The Hindus have similar traditions regarding the Caturyuga, for according to them, at the beginning of it, i.e. at the beginning of Kritayuga, there was happiness and safety, fertility and abundance, health and force ample knowledge and a great number of Brahmans, The good is complete in this age, like four-fourths of a whole, and life lasted 4000 years alike for all beings during this whole space of time. Thereupon things began to decrease and to be mixed with opposite elements to such a degree, that at the

beginning of Tretayuga the good was thrice as much as the invading bad, and that bliss was three-quarters of the whole. There were a greater number of Kshatriyas than of Brahmans, and life had the same length as in the preceding age. So it is represented by the Vishnu-Dharm,a, whilst analogy requires that it should be shorter by the same amount than bliss is smaller, i.e. by one-fourth. In this age, when offering to the fire they begin to kill animals and to tear off plants, practices which before were unknown. Thus the evil increases till, at the beginning of Dvapara, evil and good exist in equal proportions, and likewise

bliss and misfortune. The climates begin to differ, there is much killing going on, and the religions become different. Life becomes shorter, and lasts only 400 years, according to the Vishnu-Dhar7na. At the beginning of Tishya, i.e. Kaliyuga, evil is thrice as much as the remaining good. – pg 380 (Hindu view – philosophizing good and evil)

In the story of Sauuaka which Venus received from Brahman, God speaks to him in the following words : "When the Kaliyuga comes, I send Buddhodana, the son of Suddhodana the pious, to spread the good in the creation. But then the Muhammira, i.e. the red-wearing ones, who derive their origin from him, will change everything that he has brought, and the dignity of the Brahmans will be gone to such a degree that a Shudra, their servant, will be impudent towards them, and that a Sudra and Candala will share with them the presents and offerings. Men will entirely be occupied with gathering wealth by crimes, with hoarding up, not refraining from committing horrid and sinful crimes. All this will result in a rebellion of the small ones against the great ones, of the children against their parents, of the servants against their masters. The castes will be in uproar against each other, the genealogies will become confused, the four castes will be abolished, and there will be many religions and sects. Many books

will be composed, and the communities which formerly were united will on account of them be dissolved into single individuals. The temples will be destroyed and the schools will lie waste. Justice will be gone, and the kings will not know anything but oppression and spoliation, robbing and destroying, as if they wanted to devour the people, foolishly indulging in far-reaching

hopes, and not considering how short life is in comparison with the sins (for which they have to atone). The more the mind of people is depraved, the more will pestilential diseases be prevalent. Lastly, people maintain that most of the astrological rules obtained in that age are void and false. – pg 380-381 (Interesting!! Prediction of Buddha; of Muhammedians changing the peaceful ways of Buddhists; rebellion of low caste people; fighting within intercaste people; abolition of caste system; of many religions and sects; rise of individualism; destruction of temples; etc)

(One more similarity between Greek and Hindu mythology )

The book Caraka, as quoted by 'Ali Ibn Zain of Tabaiistan, says : " In primeval times the earth was always fertile and healthy, and the elements or mahctbhuta were equally mixed. Men lived with each other in harmony and love, without any lust and ambition, hatred and envy, without anything that makes soul and body ill. But then came envy, and lust followed. Driven by lust, they strove to hoard up, which was difficult to some, easy to others. All kinds of thoughts, labours, and cares followed, and resulted in war, deceit, and lying. The hearts of men were hardened, the natures were altered and became exposed to diseases,

which seized hold of men and made them neglect the worship of God and the furtherance of science. Ignorance became deeply rooted, and the calamity became great. Then the pious met before their anchorite Krisa (?) the son of Atreya, and deliberated ; whereupon the sage ascended the mountain and threw himself on the earth. Thereafter God taught him the science of medicine." – pg 382-383 (Hindu mythology)

The following occurs in the third book of the Laws ot Plato :•—' " The Athenian said : ' There have been deluges, diseases,

disasters on earth, from which none has been saved but herdsmen and mountaineers, as the remnants of a race not practised in deceit and in the love of power.'

" The Knossian said : ' At the beginning men loved each other sincerely, feeling lonely in the desert of the world, and because the world had sufficient room for all of them, and did not compel them to any exertion. There was no poverty among them, no possession, no contract. There was no greed among them, and neither silver nor gold. There were no rich people among them and no poor. If we found any of their books, they would afford us numerous proofs for all this.'” – pg 385 (Greek mythology).

Chap 44 : ON THE MANVANTARAS

In the book Vishnu-Dharma Markandeya gives to Vajra the following answer: " Purusha is the lord of the universe ; the lord of the kalpa is Brahman, the lord of the world ; but the lord of the manvantara is Manu. There are fourteen Manus, from whom the kings of the earth, ruling at the beginning of each manvantara, descended." – pg 386 (Huge time scales; and different God is responsible for different time scale)

Chap 45 : ON THE CONSTELLATION OE THE GEEAT BEAR.

We have already mentioned that the books of the Hindus are composed in metres, and therefore the authors indulge in comparisons and epitheta ornantia, such as are admired by their countrymen. Of the same kind is a description of the Great Bear in the Samhita of Varahamihira, where it occurs before the astrological prognostics derived from this constellation. We give

the passage according to our translation : ^— " The northern region is adorned with these stars, as a beautiful woman is adorned with a collar of pearls strung together, and a necklace of white lotus flowers, a handsomely arranged one. Thus adorned, they are

like maidens who dance and revolve round the pole as the pole orders them. And I say, on the authority of Garga, the ancient, the primeval one, that the Great Bear stood in Magha, the tenth lunar station, when Yudhishthira ruled the earth, and the Sakakala was 2526 years after this. The Great Bear remains in each lunar station 600 years, and it rises in the north-east. He (of the Seven Rishis) who then rules the east is Marici; west of him is Vasishtha, then Angiras, Atri, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, and near Vasishtha there is a  chaste woman called Arundhati." – pg 389-390 (Hindu sciences were in lyrical form weaving stories and characters around the known / unknown observations)

Mistakes and confusion such as we have here laid open arise, in the first place, from the want of the necessary skill in astronomical researches, and secondly, from astronomy. the way of the Hindus of mixing up scientific questions with religious traditions. For the theologians believe that the Seven Rishis stand higher than the fixed stars, and they maintain that in each manvantara there will appear a new Manu, whose children will destroy the earth ; but the rule will be renewed by Indra, as also

the different classes of the angels and the Seven Rishis. The angels are necessary, for mankind must offer sacrifices to them and must bring to the fire the shares for them ; and the Seven Rishis are necessary, because they must renew the Veda, for it perishes at the end of each manvantara.-  pg 393 (Hindu sciences were intertwined with religious mythology; Islamic scholars like Al Beruni were mature enough to keep science and religion separate; Hindus had cyclic mode of thought ie everything has an end and then a beginning ) 

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Chap 46 : ON NARAYANA, HIS APPEARANCE AT DIFFERENT TIMES, AND HIS NAMES.

NARAYANA is according to the Hindus a supernatural power, which does not on principle try to bring about the good by the good, nor the bad by the bad, but to prevent the evil and destruction by whatever means happen to be available. For this force the good exists prior to the bad, but if the good does not properly develop nor is available, it uses the bad, this being unavoidable– pg 395 (human nature of God – He cannot do miracles – but will use any method to restore goodness in world)

The same book says: " Also his colours differ in the yugas. In the Kritayuga he is white, in the Tretayuga red, in the Dvapara yellow, the latter is the first phase of his being embodied in human shape, and in the Kaliyuga he is black." These colours are something like the three primary forces of their philosophy, for they maintain that Satya is transparent white. Rajas is  red, and Tamas black. We – pg 398-99  (Colours and  their significance)

Chap 47 : ON VASUDEVA AND THE WARS OF THE BHARATA

THE life of the world depends upon sowing and procreating. Both processes increase in the course of time, and this increase is unlimited, whilst the world is limited.

When a class of plants or animals does not increase any more in its structure, and its peculiar kind is established as a species of its own, when each individual of it does not simply come into existence once and perish, but besides procreates a being like itself or several together, and not only once but several times, then this will as a single species of plants or animals occupy the earth and spread itself and its kind over as much territory as it can find.

The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive.

Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish, for its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realizing that result which they are intended to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others.

If thus the earth is ruined, or is near to be ruined, by having too many inhabitants, its ruler—for it has a ruler, and his all-embracing care is apparent in every single particle of it—sends it a messenger for the purpose of reducing the too great number and of cutting away all that is evil. – pg 400 – 401 (raison d'etre for coming of various avatars of Vishnu to Earth)

Then there was born a child in the city of Mathura to Vasudeva by the sister of Kaihsa, at that time ruler of the town. They

were a Jatt family, cattle-owners, low Sudra people. – pg 401 (Vasudeva a Sudra)

Chap 48 : AN EXPLANATION OF THE MEASURE OF AN AKSHAUHINI