Al Beruni's India

Al Beruni’s India

This is a very important historic book as it was written at the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Hindus. Hindu civilization changed thereafter, but what Hindus were prior to it can be visualized by reading this book. Hindu social life, sciences and religion are very objectively depicted by a foreign scholar of repute and of different faith. I must appreciate Al Beruni for putting in tremendous effort especially in studying difficult to grasp hindu sciences, which with today knowledge border on absurdity, but were cutting edge at that point of time – and I have read them with understanding them. It is must read by all sub-continental residents be it Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians as Hindus of those times (pre 1000AD) were our joint ancestors.

For benefit of readers, I have i) Summarized the book ii) Copied important extracts with page numbers with my comments in parenthesis iii) Links to the original Part I and Part II book.

Summary :

Hindus and Muslims were different in almost all respects including religious belief even at the beginning of the millennium. Within Hinduism there was little dispute and for any dispute they debated among themselves but never staked their lives or their properties for religious dispute. Hindus were wary of foreigners to the extent of isolating them – main reason was that Buddhist (similar to Hindus) were earlier dominant in central Asia and Iran but were dislodged by Zoroastrianism and had to emigrate to other countries.  Later with the plunder of Islamic conqueror Muhammad Kasim –who reached till Kanauj -  this hatred towards foreigners increased.  

Then came the attack of Mahmud of Ghazni where AlBeruni writes “Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people” resulting in “most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims”.

Sciences that were flourishing in various parts of the India “RETIRED FAR AWAY FROM THOSE PARTS OF THE COUNTRY CONQUERED BY US, AND HAVE FLED TO PLACES WHICH OUR HAND CANNOT YET REACH, TO KASHMIR, BENARES, AND OTHER PLACES”

Hindus were confident to the extent of arrogance for they believed that theirs is the best country, best king, best sciences, best religion, etc. They were not open minded as they were in past.

Irrespective of being suspicious of foreigners, Hindus respected knowledge and spoke highly of Greeks and even interacted with Al Beruni when they came to know about his wisdom. Al Beruni considered himself lucky to interact and gain knowledge from Hindus.

Alberuni throughout in his book has projected similarities between Hindus and Greeks – the similarities listed are as follows :

a)     Educated class thought in similar way
b)     Common people worshiped idols

c)     Belief in souls   

d)     Building temples and offering sacrifices

e)     Belief in multiplicity of gods - calling everything that is glorious and noble including mountains or seas as Gods.

f)      Origin of gods is similar : “Greeks gave the name of gods to the visible bodies in heaven, as many barbarians do. Afterwards, when they came to philosophise on the abstract ideas of the world of thought, they called these by the name of gods." And a Man in ancient times can rise to be an angel, etc

g)     All humans are divine

h)     Plants having life like animals – (Plato)

i)      Belief in transmigration of soul and Karma (Plato, Pythagoras, Socrates)

j)      Gita’s message of pursuit of knowledge and removal of ignorance (Socrates)

k)     Detachment as taught in Gita (Pythagoras)

l)      Gita’s philosophy of eternal soul (Socrates)

m)   Similarity in Gods

n)     Concept of ‘Brahman’ similar to ‘Zeus’

o)     Formation of the laws was by the sages (Hindu and Greek) (Romans copied their laws from Greeks)

p)     Literature in poetry similar to Hindus

q)     Exchange of ideas between Hindus, Greeks and Romans

r)      Universe similar to an egg – Brahmanda (Plato)

s)     Composition of heaven

t)      Society – its birth, sustenance, destruction and re-birth

u)     Heavenly bodies nourish themselves by the vapours (Aristotle)

v)     After death souls circle around body for some time (Plato)

w)    Burning of dead bodies (only great men)

The only difference between Hindus and Greeks as mentioned by Al Beruni is :

         Greeks had philosophers like Socrates who challenged popular superstition thus sifting science from absurd - whereas Hindus did not have men who could challenge popular perceptions and separate science from absurd thus hindu sciences were confused – it was a “mixture of pearl shells and sour dates, or of pearls and dung, or of costly crystals and common pebbles”

Al Beruni is a devout muslims who considers Islam to be a true religion and Hindu’s and Greek’s religion as deviation from the Truth.

Hindus believed in one eternal unique God and divinity in everything. It is the Brahmins who preserve and maintain the religion. Educated hindus do not attribute human qualities to God but common people have many theories and talk loosely  about Gods, but nobody minds it.

Hindus had an open mind on religion – Al Beruni quotes Vyasa that one should learn basics (twenty-five by distinctions, definitions, and divisions, as you learn a logical syllogism) and after this one can follow any religion to achieve salvation.

Just like in Islam the belief in one God with Mohammed being his prophet and in Christianity the belief in trinity is central to these religions – the transmigration of soul is central to Hinduism. Hindus believe in transmigration of soul through various species and even plants and in theory of karma and knowledge being the way to liberation. Al Beruni quotes Patanjali “He who wants God, wants the good for the whole creation without a single exception for any reason whatever” drawing parallels with Sufism. Also he quotes Sufi saint’s philosophy of Sufi being the God drawing similarity to the Vedantic philosophy of God.

Caste / Class System was universal in world where kings dissuaded intermixing to prevent disorder. Each class had to live within their limits. Persian Empire had a system similar to that of Hindus. There was not much difference between Shudras and Vaisya. All castes lived together mixing together in same houses and lodging. There were people who were not within the caste system and  were classified with their profession - living outside the place resided by the four castes.  Apart from these, there were people categorized as outcastes indulging in dirty work like cleansing, scavenging, etc.. Vasudeva (Krishna) is mentioned many times in book, is born in a Sudra family. Sudras were an important part of society.

Al Beruni mentions that Hindus (with exception of some) believed that everyone can achieve liberation irrespective of his / her caste and it is supported by the scriptures.

Hindus acknowledged that their religious laws are derived from sages and not from Gods. Gods come to world to eliminate evilness that has cropped in the society - without changing the law, therefore Hindus can dispense with Prophets / Gods as far as laws and worship are concerned. Hindus have been abrogating the laws depending on the changing times.

He acknowledged that educated Hindus believed in One God and images / idols are meant for the common people who cannot visualize the abstract nature of God and are kept in thrall by ‘priestly tricks’ and ‘deceit’. Idol worship was initially meant for commemorating the dead and consoling the living.

Vedas are transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vaisya and Sudra castes are not allowed to even hear or recite them and in case they are caught in the act, they are punished by cutting off their tongues.

Hindus had converted their knowledge in metre and passed it on from one generation to another orally for they felt writing can be corrupted. They have laws for correctness of speech and for metrical form of poetry as their books are in metrical form to help learn them by heart. They may recite the books even if they don’t understand their meaning.

Hindus studied various schools of astronomical thought including that of Romans and Greeks.  Similarly they study medicine and their books have been translated into Arabic. Apart from these Hindus “cultivate numerous other branches of science and literature, and have a nearly boundless literature.” Hindu book - Panshantra - was translated into Arabic and Persian.

Kashmir and Varanasi were the learning centres of Hindu sciences. The numerals used are of Hindu origin. Al Beruni has studied the number system of all of the nations that he was in contact with and found that no nation goes beyond thousand including arabs, only Hindus go beyond thousands in arithmetical technical terms and for religious reasons Hindus go till the 18^th order of numbers. Hindus were far ahead of Arabs of the time in arithmetic.

Hindu customs were opposite to that of Muslims.  In all consultations they took the advise of women.

Hindus were quite superstitious, which was common among all nations. Muslims traded in slaves. Brahmins ate meat. Kashmiris did not allow foreigners, even Hindus whom they did not know,  to enter their place. Earlier they did allow foreigners, especially Jews.

Hindu scholars had divergent views on the cosmology. The universe was conceptualized  round like an egg. Initially  there was water and God made an egg (Brahmanda) came out it. Similar view was held by Greeks.    

Hindu scholars were open to admit the limitations of human power of vision

Hindu scholars in order to explain the unknown celestial phenomena created concepts like mount meru (view also held by Zoroastrians) and juxtaposed it with the religious myths.

Al Beruni mentions that muslims were intolerant where any criticism of Koran was condemned by death, though he believed that it had nothing to do with Islam.

Hindu religion and sciences co-existed peacefully. Even though the concept of universe in the religious book of Hindus (Puranas) was opposite to that of Hindu scholars, the ordinary Hindu masses showed respect and admiration to the Hindu scholars, even to the extent of declaring that all these scholars will definitely enter heaven. The result of this respect was that Hindu sciences got intermingled with religious myths creating confusion among serious scholars like Al Beruni.

 

All Hindu scholars believed Earth to be of globular in shape with northern hemisphere having land and southern having water. Earth being the centre of universe with all objects gravitating towards the centre of earth.

Some followers of Aryabhata maintained that earth was moving and heavens are still. Al Beruni writes that some Hindus think that the earth moves while the sun is resting.

Hindus had the habit of allegorical representation of the scientific facts and creating stories around it. “The Hindus can never speak of anything, be it an object of the intellect or of imagination, without representing it as a personification, an individual. They at once marry him, make him celebrate marriage, make his wife become pregnant and give birth to something”

Hindus had the concept of the Indian land mass as a separate entity called Bharata and had low opinion of the people living outside their lands . They were proud of their race, though they believed that all humanity is subjected to the same reward and punishment rule.

They had pretty good concept of longitudes, latitudes, equator, poles, equinoxes, day/ night phenomena at poles, different time zones, etc.

Hindus believed that matter is neither created nor destroyed, it existed from all eternity - however universe exists and dies according to the day and night of Bhraman. The day of Bhraman is 4.32 billion years (which corresponds the modern age of  earth at 4.5 billion years).

Hindus were not afraid of tackling large numbers, but rather enjoyed them. To give vent to their imagination, to speculate on the universe and its nature, (10,782,449,978,758,523,781,120,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 – is one the largest number that I came across in the book  – pg 363) they were also calculating the smallest possible unit of time viz 24 hours, 60 minutes, 60 seconds and further sub-division of seconds.

  

The number of solar days as per Hindus was 365.258 days (modern calculation is 365.242 days).

Hindus scholars were very often disagreeing with each other in matters of sciences and in giving numbers to the myths associated with life of universe.

Hindus had conceptualized the idea of God as Human, who does not do miracles to bring order to society but uses whatever means available to him to bring goodness to society. Vasudeva (Krishna) was a born to a low caste Sudra family.

Al Beruni mentions about the destruction of Somnath temple, the most famous Hindu temple, where idol was broken and taken to Ghazni along with all jewels, gold etc. and placed on the door on which people rub their feet to clean dirt. He also mentions of the destruction of temple in Multan.

Hindu kings ruled over Afganistan (Kabul) and were noble and just rulers, they are not much interested in writing their history.

Al Beruni calls Arab people as illiterates – who can neither read nor write. He mentions that Arabic astronomy is derived from Hindu texts and also Hindu scholars imparted knowledge to Arabic scholars, Al Beruni mentions of the Hindu texts translated into Arabic / Persian and Hindu scholars travelling to Bagdad to spread knowledge . Hindus followed lunar month and solar year cycle same as Jews and Pagan Arabs.

Hindus were also studying Greek Texts. Hindus had the concept of evaporation, reflected sunlight by moon, it being closer to earth than all heavenly bodies (though religious texts mentioned otherwise), rising and ebb of tides, cause of solar and lunar eclipse, etc.

Alkhwarizmi (after whom Algebra is named) , Ya'kub Ibn Tarik, Abu-alhasan, Alfazari, Yakub, Al Kindi, etc are mentioned by Al Beruni of writing their own books after consulting Hindu scholars and books.

Hindus traded with China via sea.

Al Beruni suggested keeping religious mombo- jumbo outside the realm of science, asking scientist to following rational thought knowing that world is full of ignorant people.

Hindus venerated fire like all other nations. Brahmins lived the life of purity, discipline and without much resources - were the teachers, Kashtriya were the rulers, Vaisya were traders, herders and Sudras were like the servants to Brahmins. Sudras and Vaisya were forbidden to recite Vedas but were permitted to perform all other religious rituals. Castes were a division of labour as it was considered a crime in case a man takes an occupation other than meant for his own caste. Non-hindus and people who kill animals were classified as mleecha (unclean). Whatever the division of people in society due to caste system, philosophically all people ie Brahman (the highest) and the Candala (the lowest), were equal. Brahmins did not pay taxes whereas others paid 1/6 as tax to king. Interest taking is forbidden for all except Sudra and he is allowed to drink wine though it was restricted to others.

Brahmins ate meat of the horse sacrificed in Ashvameda. Pilgrimages and fasting were not obligatory, Hindus built high quality ponds. Hindus donated lavishly as they did not believe in savings. Al Beruni mentions that originally killing was forbidden to Hindus (and even to Christians) but at that moment killing by strangulation was allowed. Hindu scholars told him that in ancient times killing of cows and eating beef was allowed but later it went out of fashion due to secular/ health and not religious reasons.  Laws were to be strictly applied to Brahmins as they were the custodians of the religion.

Hindus marry young with music and rejoicing, with no dowry and marriage was for life with no provision of divorce, polygamy was allowed with upto 4 wives. Widow re-marriage was not allowed. Widows either had to remain single or chose to burn themselves (sati) with their husbands. Sati was by choice but was a preferred custom especially for queens though exceptions were allowed for older females and ones with children.

Marriage between relatives was prohibited. Man could marry a girl of lower caste but marrying an upper caste girl was prohibited and the child carried the caste of his/her mother and not father.

Hindus were not strict with prostitutes / dance girls. These girls sang, danced in temples and Kings encouraged it to attract more people to come to urban centres so that tax revenues can increase. Justice was delivered in primitive way by making one drink poison – with the belief that if a person is innocent, he will survive.

Hindu customs and laws were based on the premise that humans are inherently good, similar to the Christian notion of turning the other cheek and blessing ones enemies.  Killing of Brahmin and cows, drinking wine, whoredom were considered most heinous crimes. Brahmins and kashtriyas were privileged people in eyes of law and punishments were pronounced depending on the severity of crime.  Adulterous female were banished.

Hindus were taken slaves by muslim armies but the hindus escaping from slavery were not welcomed back as they were considered impure – so were the Brahmins who ate in Sudra’s house were not readmitted into their caste.

Al Beruni mentions of the Hindu king of Kabul adopted Islam when muslims conquered Kabul – but he still insisted on not eating beef – indicating that first few generation of Hindus had roots in Hinduism and were nominal muslims to save their skin from muslim armies.

Women did not inherit anything except daughters, who got ¼ share of son, if she remains unmarried. If married, she loses her inheritance. For widow, her husband’s heir provide for her living, till her death.

Eunuchs had the same rights as that of sons. 

In ancient times, Hindus disposal of bodies were similar to that of Zoroastrians, ie leaving them to elements for decomposition but later Hindus started to burn their bodies.

Suicide by burning was prohibited to Bhramins and Kashtriyas, they were allowed to kill themselves by drowning.  

Most of the Hindu festivals were celebrated by women and children only. Sunday was holy because of reverence to sun and was beginning of the week, similar to the Friday of the Muslims.

Excerpts from the Book :

Chap. 1

Hindus entirely differ from us in every respect, many a subject appearing intricate and obscure which would be perfectly clear if there were more connection between us. – pg17

Besides, the scientific books of the Hindus are composed in various favourite metres, by which they intend, considering that the books soon become corrupted by additions and omissions, to preserve them exactly as they are, in order to facilitate their being learned by heart, because they consider as canonical only that which is known by heart, not that which exists in writing. -pg19

they totally differ from us in religion, as we believe in nothing in which they believe, and vice versa. On the whole, there is very little disputing about theological topics among themselves; at the utmost, THEY FIGHT WITH WORDS, BUT THEY WILL NEVER STAKE THEIR SOUL OR BODY OR THEIR PROPERTY ON RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSY. On the contrary, all their fanaticism is directed against those who do not belong to them—against all foreigners. They call them mleccha, i.e. impure, and forbid having any connection with them, be it by intermarriage or any other kind of relationship, or by sitting, eating, and drinking with them, because thereby, they think, they would be polluted. They consider as impure anything which touches the fire and the water of a foreigner; and no household can exist without these two elements. Besides, they never desire that a thing which once has been polluted should be purified and thus recovered, as, under ordinary circumstances, if anybody or anything has become unclean, he or it would strive to regain the state of purity. They are not allowed to receive anybody who does not belong to them, even if he wished it, or was inclined to their religion. This, too, renders any connection with them quite impossible, and constitutes the widest gulf between us and them. – pg19-20 (debate and not fight on religious issues – r xenophobic – the reason being the Islamic attacks on hindus for preceding 2 centuries where hindus were taken slaves and also Mahmud’s attacks on temples / Alberuni being part of Mahmud’s expedition)

In the third place, in all manners and usages they differ from us to such a degree as to frighten their children with us, with our dress, and our ways and customs, and as to declare us to be devil's breed, and our doings as the very opposite of all that is good and proper. By the by, we must confess, in order to be just, that a similar depreciation of foreigners not only prevails among us and the Hindus, but is common to all nations towards each other. –pg 20 (xenophobia was common among all nations)

Another circumstance which increased the already  existing antagonism between Hindus and foreigners is that the so-called Shamaniyya (Buddhists), though they cordially hate the Brahmans, still are nearer akin to them than to others. In former times, Khurasan, Persis, Irak, Mosul, the country up to the frontier of Syria, was Buddhistic, but then Zarathustra went forth from Adharbaijan and preached Magism in Balkh (Baktra). His doctrine came into favour with King Gushtasp, and his son Isfendiyad spread the new faith both in east and west, both by force and by treaties. He founded fire-temples through his whole empire, from the frontiers of China to those of the Greek empire. The succeeding kings made their religion (i.e. Zoroastrianism)

the obligatory state-religion for Persis and 'Irak. In consequence, the Buddhists were banished from those countries, and had to emigrate to the countries east of Balkh. – Pg 21 (Why Hindus were not willing to trust foreigners)

But then came Islam; the Persian empire perished, and the repugnance of the Hindus against foreigners increased more and more when the Muslims began to make their inroads into their country; for Muhammad Ibn Elkasim Ibn Elmunabbih entered

Sindh from the side of Sijistan(Sakastene) and conquered the cities of Bahmanwa and Mulasthana, the former of which he called Al-mansitra, the latter Al-mct'mtlra. He entered India proper, and penetrated even as far as Kanauj, marched through the country of Gandhara, and on his way back, through the confines of Kashmir, sometimes fighting sword in hand, sometimes gaining his ends by treaties, leaving to the people their ancient belief, except in the case of those who wanted to become Muslims. All these events planted a deeply rooted hatred in their hearts. – Pg 21 (Hatred towards muslims)

Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. Their scattered remains cherish, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims. THIS IS THE REASON, TOO, WHY HINDU SCIENCES HAVE RETIRED FAR AWAY FROM THOSE PARTS OF THE COUNTRY CONQUERED BY US, AND HAVE FLED TO PLACES WHICH OUR HAND CANNOT YET REACH, TO KASHMIR, BENARES, AND OTHER PLACES. And there the antagonism between them and all foreigners receives more and more nourishment both from political and religious sources. – pg 22 (Reason for hatred for muslims – shifting of  the sciences from the conquered places)

Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like

theirs. They are haughty, foolishly vain, self-conceited, and stolid. They are by nature niggardly in communicating that which they know, and they take the greatest possible care to withhold it from men of another caste among their own people, still much more, of course from any foreigner. According to their belief, there is no other country on earth but theirs, no other race of

man but theirs, and no created beings besides them have any knowledge or science whatsoever. Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them of any science or scholar in Khurasan and Persis, they will think you to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they travelled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, FOR THEIR ANCESTORS WERE NOT AS NARROW-MINDED AS THE PRESENT GENERATION IS. – pg 22-23 (arrogance of hindus – similar to the Americans of today – y did they become self conceited / arrogant or closed to foreigners? Is it due to barbarity of muslims that they witnessed for last 2 centuries)

One of their scholars, Varahamihira, in a passage where he calls on the people to honour the Brahmans, says : " The GREEKS, THOUGH IMPURE, MUST HE HONOURED, SINCE THEY WERE TRAINED IN SCIENCES, AND THEREIN EXCELLED OTHERS. What, then, are we to say of a Brahman, if he combines with his purity the height of science " pg 23(Respect to purity and sciences)

then they flocked together round me from all parts, wondering, and MOST EAGER TO LEARN FROM ME, asking me at the same time from what Hindu master – pg 23 (answer to conceit – Hindus did not encounter anyone better so were arrogant but when someone proved better than them – they were eager to learn)

Hindu scholars who understand them and are able to teach me. – pg 24 (exchange of knowledge)

What scholar, however, has the same favourable opportunities of studying this subject as I have ? That would be only the case with one to whom the grace of God accords – pg 24 (considers himself lucky to be learning from Hindus)

The heathen Greeks, before the rise of Christianity held much the same opinions as the Hindus; their educated  classes thought much the same as those of the Hindus; their common people held the same idolatrous views as those of the Hindus – pg 24 (similarity of thought and belief between Hindus and Greeks)

For that which is not the truth (ie the true belief or monotheism) does not admit of any correction, and all heathenism, whether Greek or Indian, is in its pith and marrow one and the same belief, because it is only a deviation from the truth. – pg 24 (considers Islam to be absolute truth and other thoughts as deviation of truth)

The Greeks, however, had philosophers who, living in their country, discovered and worked out for them the elements of science, not of popular superstition, for it is the object of the upper classes to be guided by the results of science, whilst the common crowd will always be inclined to plunge into wrong-headed wrangling, as long as they are not kept down by fear of punishment. Think of Socrates when he opposed the crowd of his nation as to their idolatry and did not want to call the stars gods ! At once eleven of the twelve judges of the Athenians agreed on a sentence of death, and Socrates died faithful to the truth.  The Hindus had no men of this stamp both capable and willing to bring sciences to a classical perfection. Therefore you mostly find that even the so-called scientific theorems of the Hindus are in a state of utter confusion, devoid of any logical order, and in the last instance always mixed up with the silly notions of the crowd, e.g. immense numbers, enormous spaces of time, and all kinds of religious dogmas, which the vulgar belief does not admit of being called into question. Therefore it is a prevailing practice among the Hindus jurare in verba magistri; and I can only compare their mathematical and astronomical literature, as far as I know it, to

a mixture of pearl shells and sour dates, or of pearls and dung, or of costly crystals and common pebbles. Both kinds of things are equal in their eyes, since they cannot raise themselves to the methods of a strictly scientific deduction. - pg25 ( Difference between Greeks and Hindus way of science – Greeks scholars were able to separate superstition (religion) and science whereas Hindus could not – Sciences r the work of upper classes and lower classes r to be kept in check by fear of punishment. Hindus sciences include notions (superstition) of the lower classes) (It seems  there was quite separation between Greek higher and lower classes that is y Grek civilization succumbed to Christianity – whereas Hindu literature and Sciences included notions of lower classes and it managed to survive)

Chap. 2 : Hindu Belief in God

The Hindus believe with regard to God that he is one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by freewill, almighty, all-wise, living, giving life, ruling, preserving ; one who in his sovereignty is unique, beyond all likeness and unlikeness, and that he does not resemble anything nor does anything resemble him. – Pg 27 (similar to Islamic concept of God) 

Gives excerpts from discourse of Pitaljali and Gita. Different opinions about God, action, soul, etc.  among Hindus.

Chap. 3:  ON THE HINDU BELIEF AS TO CREATED THINGS, BOTH " INTELLIGIBILIA " AND "SENSIBILIA."

ON this subject the ancient Greeks held nearly the same view as the Hindus, at all events in those times before philosophy rose high among them under the care  of the seven so-called pillars of wisdom – pg 33(similarity between Hindu and Greek thought)

As to the souls and spirits, the Greeks think that they exist by themselves before they enter bodies – pg 34 (Greeks belief in soul)

Therefore they called them gods, built temples in their names and offered them sacrifices – pg 34 (similar practice to Hindus)

"God is in the single number ; there are no gods in the plural number."  – pg 35 (Plato’s belief in God)

These quotations prove that the Greeks call in general god everything that is glorious and noble, and the like usage exists among many nations. They go even so far as to call gods the mountains, the seas, - pg 36 (similar practice to Hindus)

Johannes Grammaticus says in his refutation of Proclus: " The Greeks gave the name of gods to the visible bodies in heaven, as many barbarians do. Afterwards, when they came to philosophise on the abstract ideas of the world of thought, they called these

by the name of gods." – pg 36 (It is usual that we humans imagine God due to unknown phenomena and then bring him to fill the gaps in abstract ideas)

This Galenus says in clear words in the same book: "If it is true that Asclepius was a man in bygone times, and that then God deigned to make him one of the angels, everything else is idle talk." – pg 36 (Creation of Greek Gods having similarity to the creation of Hindu Gods)

If we consider the use of the word god in the Arabic language, we find that all the names by which the pure truth, i.e.

Allah, has been named, may somehow or other be applied to other beings besides him, except the word Allah, which only applies to God, and which has been called his greatest name – Pg 36 (Al Beruni is a devout muslim).

The educated among the Hindus abhor anthropomorphisms of this kind, but the crowd and the members of the single sects use them most extensively. They go even beyond all we have hitherto mentioned, so as to speak of wife, son, daughter, of the rendering pregnant and other physical processes, all in connection with God. They are even so little pious, that, when

speaking of these things, they do not even abstain from silly and unbecoming language. However, nobody minds these classes and their theories, though they be numerous. The main and most essential point of the Hindu world of thought is that which the Brahmans think and believe, for they are specially trained for preserving and maintaining their religion. – pg 39 (Educated Hindus do not attribute human characteristics to God but lower level classes (crowd) do without entering into conflict with the educated classes. Vedic (educated) and Puranic thoughts (crowd) co-existing peacefully. Importance of Brahmins in preserving Hindu religion)

Regarding the whole creation, they think that it is a unity, as has already been declared, because Vasudeva speaks in the book called Gita : " To speak accurately, we must say that all things are divine; for Vishnu made himself the earth that the living beings should rest thereupon ; he made himself water to nourish them thereby ; he made himself fire and wind in order to make them grow; and he made himself the heart of every single being. He presented them with recollection and knowledge and the two opposite qualities, as is mentioned in the Veda." – pg 40 (everything is divine)

book of Apollonius, De Causis Rerum, as if the one had been taken from the other ! He says : • "There is in all men a divine power, by which all things, both material and immaterial, are apprehended." – pg 40 (Greek thought on divinity similar to Hindus)

Purusha, Avyakta, Prakriti, Ahankara, Mahabhuta, Pancha mantra, Indriyani, Karmendyani, tattava, - pg 40-44

The Hindus consider the plants as a species of animal as Plato also thinks that the plants have a sense, because they have the faculty of distinguishing between that which suits them and that which is detrimental to them. – pg 43

Therefore Vyasa the son of Parasara speaks : " Learn twenty-five by distinctions, definitions, and divisions, as you learn a

logical syllogism, and something which is a certainty, not merely studying with the tongue. Afterwards adhere to whatever religion you like; your end will be salvation." – pg 44 (no stress on following any particular religion – importance is to imbibe the values)

Chap 5 : FROM WHAT CAUSE ACTION ORIGINATES, AND HOW THE SOUL IS CONNECTED WITH MATTER.

Hindus compare the soul to a dancing-girl who is clever in her art and knows well what effect each motion and pose of hers has. She is in the presence of a sybarite most eager of enjoying what she has learned. Now she begins to produce the various kinds of her art one after the other under the admiring gaze of the host, until her programme is finished and the eagerness of the spectator

has been satisfied. Then she stops suddenly, since she could not produce anything but a repetition ; and as a repetition is not wished for, he dismisses her, and action ceases. – pg 47

The book of Samkhya derives action from matter, for the difference of forms under which matter appears depends upon the three primary forces, and upon whether one or two of them gain the supremacy over the  remainder. These forces are the angelic, the human,and the animal. The three forces belong only to matter, not to the soul. The task of the soul is to learn the actions of matter like a spectator, resembling a traveler who sits down in a village to repose. Each villager is busy with his own particular work, but he looks at them and considers their doings, disliking some, liking others, and taking an example from them. In this way

he is busy without having himself any share in the business going on, and without being the cause which has brought it about. – pg 48 (Samkhya philosophy)

Samkhya / Soul – Pg 49

Chap 5 : ON THE STATE OF THE SOULS, AND THEIR MIGRATIONS THROUGH THE WORLD IN THE METEMPSYCHOSIS

" There is no god but God, Muhammad is his prophet," is the shibboleth of Islam, the Trinity that of Christianity, and the institute of the Sabbath that of Judaism, so metempsychosis is the shibboleth of the Hindu religion. Therefore he who does not believe in it does not belong to them, and is not reckoned as one of them. – pg 50 (Transmigration of Soul is fundamental to Hindu religion)

The soul, as long as it has not risen to the highest absolute intelligence, does not comprehend the totality of objects at once, or, as it were, in no time. Therefore it must explore all particular beings and examine all the possibilities of existence ; and as their number is, though not unlimited, still an enormous one, the soul wants an enormous space of time in order to finish the contemplation of such a multiplicity of objects. The soul acquires knowledge only by the contemplation of the individuals and the species, and of their peculiar actions and conditions. It gains experience from each object, and gathers thereby new knowledge. – pg 50 (Transmigration of Souls through various species)

the world is not left without some direction, being led, as it were, by a bridle and directed towards a definite scope. Therefore

the imperishable souls wander about in perishable bodies conformably to the difference of their actions, as they prove to be good or bad. Pg 50 (r we being led in certain direction??)

The object of the migration through the world of reward (i.e. heaven) is to direct the attention of the soul to the good, that it should become desirous of acquiring as much of it as possible. The object of its migration through the world of punishment (i.e. hell) is to direct its attention to the bad and abominable, that it should strive to keep as far as possible aloof from it. – pg 51 (Karma)

The migration begins from low stages, and rises to higher and better ones, not the contrary, as we state on purpose, since the one is a priori as possible as the other. The difference of these lower and higher stages depends upon the difference of the actions, and this again results from the quantitative and qualitative diversity of the temperaments and the various degrees of combinations in which they appear. This migration lasts until the object aimed at has been completely attained both for the soul and matter ;

the lower aim being the disappearance of the shape of matter, except any such new formation as may appear desirable ; the higher aim being the ceasing of the desire of the soul to learn what it did not know before, the insight of the soul into the nobility of its own being and its independent existence, its knowing that it can dispense with matter after it has become acquainted with the mean nature of matter and the instability of its shapes, with all that which matter offers to the senses, and with the truth of the tales about its delights. Then the soul turns away from matter; the connecting links are broken, the union is dissolved. Separation and dissolution take place, and the soul returns to its home, carrying with itself as much of the bliss of knowledge as sesame develops grains and blossoms, afterwards never separating from its oil The intelligent being, intelligence and its object, are

united and become one. – pg 51 (nut shell of Hindu philosophy)

Gita gyan – pg 52-54

The ancient Greeks agreed with the Hindus in this belief. Socratcs says in the book Phaedo : " We are reminded in the tales of the ancients that the souls go from here to Hades, and then come from Hades to here; that the living originates from the dead, and

that altogether things originate from their contraries. Therefore those who have died are among the living. Our souls lead an existence of their own in Plades. The soul of each man is glad or sorry at something, and contemplates this thing. This impressionable nature ties the soul to the body, nails it down in the body, and gives it, as it were, a bodily figure. The soul

which is not pure cannot go to Hades. It quits the body still filled with its nature, and then migrates hastily into another body, in which it is, as it were, deposited and made fast. Therefore, it has no share in the living of the company of the unique, pure, divine

essence." – pg 56-57 (Greeks believing in migration of souls and karma)

(Greek philosophers Plato and Proclus ascertaining their belief in migration of souls) – pg 57.

Chap 6 : ON THE DIFFERENT WORLDS, AND ON THE PLACES OF RETRIBUTION IN PARADISE AND HELL.

(About Swarloka, narkloka and manushyaloka (Heaven, Hell and Living World)  - How and why do people enter these – migration of souls from hell to plants to animals to humans).- pg 59

(Different types of hell and what actions are considered as sin by hindus) – pg 60-61

(Good and Bad actions to be balanced while deciding the quantum of reward or punishment – and it is not the action that decides retribution but the intention). – pg 62

(Karma (Vishnu Purana)) – pg 63-64

(Migration of Soul – muslim writer (Abu-Yakiib) and Greeks (Plato, Pythagoras, Socrates) also believing in it – migration of souls from animals to humans depending on their deeds and also believing in rewards and punishment (Karma))  – pg 65-67

Chap 7 : ON THE NATURE OF LIBERATION FROM THE WORLD, AND ON THE PATH LEADING THERETO.

Now according to the Hindus, as we have already explained (p. 55), the reason of the bond is ignorance, and therefore it can only be liberated by knowledge, by comprehending all things in such a way as to define them both in general and in particular, rendering superfluous any kind of deduction and removing all doubts. – pg 68 (Hindus have imbibed the pursuit of knowledge in religion)

Patanjali says : “…..He who wants God, wants the good for the whole creation without a single exception for any reason

whatever; ….” –pg68 (Good of everyone without exception – so pursuit of God is pursuit of goodness for humanity)

Sufi parallel – pg 69

Patanjili’s definition of 4 types of knowledge – pg 70

According to the Hindus, the organs of the senses have been made for acquiring knowledge, and the pleasure which they afford has been created to stimulate people to research and investigation, as the pleasure which eating and drinking afford to the taste has been created to preserve the individual by means of nourishment. So the pleasure of coitus serves to preserve the species by giving birth to new individuals. If there were not special pleasure in these two functions, man and animals would not.practise them for these purposes. – pg 70 (philosophizing senses)

In the book Gita we read: "Man is created for the purpose of kuowing; and because knowing is always the same, man has been gifted with the same organs…But knowledge is such as to leave this nature behind itself prostrated on the earth like an

opponent, and removes all darkness from the soul as an eclipse or clouds are removed from the sun” – pg 70-71 (emphasis on knowledge not action)

This resembles the opinion of Socrates  “….if we were not inoculated with its nature, but were perfectly free from it, we should come near knowledge by getting rest from the ignorance of the body, and we should become pure by knowing ourselves as far as God would permit us. And it is only right to acknowledge that this is the truth." – pg 71 (similarity between Gita’s teachings and that of Socrates)

we have to consider that man must prefer the reasoning force of mind, by which he becomes similar to the highest angels – pg 72-73 (reasoning is prime virtue)

(Gita’s teachings) – pg 73-74

(Nine rules to guide Hindus) – pg 74-75

(Gita’s teaching with parallel thoughts of Socrates and Sufis) – pg 75-76

(Attaining liberation : Pitanjali, Vishnu Purana, Gita, Samkhya  with Sufi and Greek parallels) – pg 77- 88

The practical one (kriya-yoga), - This is in general the path of him who does not desire anything save what is sufficient to sustain life. The second part of the path of liberation is of renunciation. The third part of the path of liberation which is to be Considered as instrumental to the preceding two is worship,

Further, Pythagoras says : " How can you hope for the state of detachment as long as you are clad in bodies ? And how will you obtain liberation as long as you are incarcerated in them ? " – pg 85 (similar to Gita’s teaching)

Greeks view on liberation : pg 85-86

Further, Socrates says: " The soul is very similar to the divine substance which does not die nor dissolve, and is the only intelligibile which lasts for ever; When soul and body unite, nature orders body to serve, the soul to rule ; but when

they separate, the soul goes to another place than that to which the body goes…..If, however, it has sullied itself by connivance with the body, by serving and loving it so that the body was subservient to its lusts and desires, in this case it does not experience

anything more real than the species of bodily things (TO crw/;,aToetSes) and the contact with them." - pg 86 (similar to Gita’s teaching)

Sufi view on liberation – pg 87-88

Abu-Yazid Albistami once being asked how he had attained his stage in Sufism, answered : " I cast off my own self as a serpent casts off its skin. Then I considered my own self, and found that / was He," i.e. God. –pg 88 (sufi thought similar to Vedantic one)

Chap 8 : ON THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF CREATED BEINGS, AND ON THEIR NAMES.

The Hindus are people who rarely preserve one and the same order of things, and in their enumeration of things there is much that is arbitrary. They use or invent numbers of names, and who is to hinder or to control them ?- pg 89 (there is flexibility in hindu philosophy which change as per philosopher and time; there is no dogma)

(On Devatas, Rasksha, Rudra, Vishnu, etc  similarity to Greek Gods - Zeus, etc)

If you compare these traditions with those of the G reeks regarding their own religion, you will cease to find the Hindu system strange. – pg 95 (Similarity between of Hindu and Greek Gods)

If you compare Greek theology with that of the Hindus, you will find that Brahman is described in the same way as Zeus by Aratos. – pg 97

Chap 11 : ON THE CASTES, CALLED " COLOURS " (VARNA), AND ON THE CLASSES BELOW THEM.

T'he kings of antiquity, who were industriously devoted to the duties of their office, spent most of their care on the division of their subjects into different classes and orders, which they tried to preserve from intermixture and disorder. Therefore they forbade people of different classes to have intercourse with each other, and laid upon each class a particular kind of work or art and handicraft. They did not allow anybody to transgress the limits of his class, and even punished those who would not be content with their class. – pg 99 (Rulers everywhere favoured division of labour and segregation of classes and intermixing was not allowed)

All this is well illustrated by the history of the ancient Chosroes (Khusrau), for they had created great institutions of this kind, which could not be broken through by the special merits of any individual nor by bribery. When Ardashir ben Babak restored the Persian empire, he also restored the classes or castes of the population in the following way :—

The first class were the knights and princes.

The second class the monks, the fire-priests, and the lawyers.

The third class the physicians, astronomers, and other men of science.

The fourth class the husbandmen and artisans.

And within these classes there were subdivisions, distinct from each other, like the species within a genus. – pg 100 (Caste system among Persians)

The Hindus call their castes varna, i.e. colours, and from a genealogical point of view they call them jataka,

i,e, births. These castes are from the very beginning only four:

I. The highest caste are the Brahmana, of whom the books of the Hindus tell that they were created from the head of Brahman. And as Brahman is only another name for the force called nature, and the head is the highest part of the animal body, the Brahmana are the choice part of the whole genus. Therefore the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.

I I , The next caste are the Kshatriya, who were created, as they say, from the shoulders and hands of Brahman. Their degree is not much below that of the Brahmana.

I I I , After them follow the Vaisya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman.

IV, The SUdra, who were created from his feet.

Between the latter two classes there is no very great distance. Much, however, as these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings. – pg 101 (No oppressive caste system among recognized castes)

After the Sudra follow the people called Antyaja, who render various kinds of services, who are not reckoned amongst any caste, but only as members of a certain craft or profession. There are eight classes of them, who freely intermarry with each other, except the fuller, shoemaker, and weaver, for no others would condescend to have anything to do with them. These eight guilds

are the fuller, shoemaker, juggler, the basket and shield maker, the sailor, fisherman, the hunter of wild animals and of birds, and the weaver. The four castes do not live together with them in one and the same place. These guilds live near the village and towns of the four castes, but outside them. – pg 101 (people of low caste identified by their profession – so it was the profession that was looked down upon)

The people called Hadi, Doma (Domba), Candala, and Badhatau (sic) are not reckoned amongst any caste or guild. They are occupied with dirty work, like the cleansing of the villages and other services. They are considered as one sole class, and distinguished only by their occupations. In fact, they are considered like illegitimate children ; for according to general opinion

they descend from a Sudra father and a Brahmani mother as the children of fornication; therefore they are degraded outcasts. – pg 101-102 ( Lowest caste were the ones dealing with scavenging / dirty work activity)

Of the classes beneath the castes, the Hadi are the best spoken of, because they keep themselves free from everything unclean. Next follow the Doma, who play on the lute and sing. The still lower classes practise as a trade killing and the inflicting of judicial punishments. The worst of all are the Badhatau, who not only devour the flesh of dead animals, but even of dogs and other beasts. – pg 102 (The respect accorded to each class / caste was directly related to their cleanliness and disrespect to lowest in the rung due to their dealing with scavenging occupation)

about the nature of the four castes and what must be their moral qualities, whereupon Vasudeva answered : "The Brahmana must have an ample intellect, a quiet heart, truthful speech, much patience; he must be master of his senses, a lover of justice, of evident purity, always directed upon worship, entirely bent upon religion, " The Kshatriya must fill the hearts with terror, must

be brave and high-minded, must have ready speech and a liberal hand, not minding dangers, only intent upon carrying the great tasks of his calling to a happy end, " The Vaisya is to occupy himself with agriculture, with the acquisition of cattle, and with trade. "The Sudra is to endeavour to render services and attention to each of the preceding classes, in order to make himself liked by them.

" If each member of these castes adheres to his customs and usages, he will obtain the happiness he wishes for, supposing that he is not negligent in the worship of God, not forgetting to remember him in his most important avocations. But if anybody wants to quit the works and duties of his caste and adopt those of another caste, even if it would bring a certain honour to the latter, it is a sin, because it is a transgression of the rule." – pg 103 (Duties are assigned to each caste and migration to other caste is not allowed)

Hindus differ among themselves as to which of these castes is capable of attaining to liberation ; for according to some, only the Brahmana and Kshatriya are capable of it, since the others cannot learn the Veda, whilst according to the Hindu philosophers, liberation is common to all castes and to the whole human race, if their intention of obtaining it is perfect. This view is based on the saying of Vyasa : " Learn to know the twenty-five things thoroughly. Then you may follow whatever religion you like; you will no doubt be liberated." This view is also based on the fact that Vasudeva was a descendant of a Sudra family, and also on the following saying of his, which he addressed to Arjuna: "God distributes recompense without injustice and without partiality. He reckons the good as bad if people in doing good forget him; he reckons the bad as good if people in doing bad remember

him and do not forget him, whether those people be Vaisya or Sudra or women. How much more will this be the case when they are Brahmana or Kshatriya." – pg 104 (difference of opinion in attainment of highest goal by all castes; whilst hindu sages in favour of the whole human race capable of attainment of highest goal irrespective of religion and caste provided basics are adhered to; Krishna belonging to Shudra Caste) 

Chap 10 : ON THE SOURCE OF THEIR RELIGIOUS AND CIVIL LAW, ON PROPHETS, AND ON THE QUESTION WHETHER SINGLE LAWS CAN BE ABROGATED OR NOT.

THE ancient Greeks received their religious and civil laws from sages among them who were called to the work, and of whom their countrymen believed that they received divine help, like Solon, Draco, Pythagoras, Minos, and others. – pg 105 (Greeks received laws from Sages)

Romans sent messengers to the Athenians, and received from them the laws in twelve books, under which they lived till the rule of Pompilius (Numa). – pg 105 (Romans received laws from Greeks)

Such was the case with the Greeks, and it is precisely the same with the Hindus.- pg 106 (Hindus formed the laws in similar way to Greeks ie from Sages)

For they believe that their religious law and its single precepts derive their origin from Rishis, their sages, the pillars of their religion,  and not from the prophet, i.e. Narayana, who, when coming into this world, appears in some human figure. –pg 106 (Laws from Sages / Philosophers / men and not God)

But he only comes in order to cut away some evil matter which threatens the world, or to set the world right again when anything has gone wrong. Further, no law can be exchanged or replaced by another, for they use the laws simply as they find them. Therefore they can dispense with prophets, as far as law and worship are concerned, though in other affairs of the creation

they sometimes want them.  – pg 106-107 ( God takes birth to set the things right but no laws can be changed or replaced – Gods need to use the same laws – moreover Hindus can dispense with Gods as far as Law and Worship is concerned)

As for the question of the abrogation of laws, it seems that this is not impossible with the Hindus, for they say that many things which are now forbidden were allowed before the coming of Vasudeva, e.g. the flesh of cows. Such changes are necessitated by the change of the nature of man, and by their being too feeble to bear the whole burden of their duties. To these changes also belong the changes of the matrimonial system and of the theory of descent. – pg 107 ( Laws can be changed with time as nature of man changes)

All these customs have now been abolished and abrogated, and therefore we may infer from their tradition that in principle the abrogation of a law is allowable. – pg 108

(Relative customs in pre-islamic Arabia, Jews, Irainian and comparative superiority of Islam) – pg 109-110

Chap 11 : ABOUT THE BEGINNING OF IDOL-WORSHIP, AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL IDOLS.

It is well known that the popular mind leans towards the sensible world, and has an aversion to the world of abstract thought which is only understood by highly educated people, of whom in every time and every place there are only few. – pg 111 (Origin of Idol worship in nature of man)

Origin of idol worship in various communities –pg 111-112

we shall now mention their ludicrous views ; but we declare at once that they are held only by the common uneducated people. For those who march on the path to liberation, or those who study philosophy and theology, and who desire abstract truth which they call sara, are entirely free from worshipping anything but God alone, and would never dream of worshipping an image manufactured to represent him. – pg 113 (idol worship common among uneducated people but not so in educated ones)

Story on why Hindus started worshipping idols – pg 113-116

Destruction of temples at Multan, Taneshar, Somnath, - pg 116-117

Idol making rules – pg 118-121

such idols are erected only for uneducated low-class people of little understanding ; that the Hindus never made an idol of any supernatural being, much less of God; and, lastly, to show how the crowd is kept  in thraldom by all kinds of priestly tricks and

deceits. – pg 122 (idol worship for the common uneducated people)

the book Gita says : " Many people try to approach me in their aspirations through something which is different from me ; they try to insinuate themselves into my favour by giving alms, praise, and prayer to something besides me. I, however, confirm and help them in all these doings of theirs, and make them attain the object of their wishes, because I am able to dispense with them."

In the same book Vasudeva speaks to Arjuna : " Do you not see that most of those who wish for something address themselves in offering and worshipping to the several classes of spiritual beings, and to the sun, moon, and other celestial bodies ? If now God does not disappoint their hopes, though he in no way stands in need of their worship, if he even gives them more than they asked for, and if he gives them their wishes in such a way as though they were receiving them from that to which they had addressed their prayers—viz. the idol—they will proceed to worship those whom they address, because they have not learned to know him, whilst he, by admitting this kind of intermediation, carries their affairs to the desired end. But that which is obtained by desires and intermediation is not lasting, since it is only as much as is deserved for any particular merit. Only that is lasting which is obtained from God alone, when people are disgusted with old age, death, and birth (and desire to be delivered therefrom

by Mokska)." – pg 122 (Krishna making a case against idol worship)

This is what Vasudeva says. When the ignorant crowd get a piece of good luck by accident or something at which they had aimed, and when with this some of the preconcerted tricks of the priests are brought into connection, the darkness in which they live increases vastly, not their intelligence. They will rush to those figures of idols, maltreating their own figures before them by shedding their own blood and mutilating their  own bodies. – pg 123 (Krishna making a case against idol worship)

The ancient Greeks, also, considered the idols as mediators between themselves and the First Cause and

worshipped them under the names of the stars and the highest substances.– pg 123 (parallel with Greeks)

Plato says in the fourth chapter of the Book of Laws: " I t is necessary to any one who gives perfect honours (to the gods) that he should take trouble with the mystery of the gods and Sakinat, and that he should not make special idols masters over the ancestral gods. Further, it is the greatest duty to give honours as much as possible to the parents while they live." By mystery Plato means a special kind of devotion. – pg 123 (Greeks devotion to gods and respect to parents and ancestors)

There is a treatise of Aristotle in which he answers certain questions of the Brahmins which Alexander had sent him. There he says : " If you maintain that some Greeks have fabled that the idols speak, that the people offer to them and think them to be spiritual beings, of all this we have no knowledge, and we cannot give a sentence on a subject we do not know." – pg 124 (Correspondence between Brahmins and Greeks – ancient Greeks believing that idols speak – to which Aristotle admits ignorance)

It is evident that the first cause of idolatry was the desire of commemorating the dead and of consoling the living; but on this

basis it has developed, and has finally become a foul and pernicious abuse. – pg 124

Chap 12 : ON THE VEDA, THE PURINAS, AND OTHER KINDS OF THEIR NATIONAL LITERATURE.

 The Brahmins recite the Veda without understanding its meaning, and in the same way they learn it by heart, the one receiving

it from the other….. The Vaisya and Sudra are not allowed to hear it, much less to pronounce and recite it. If such a thing can be proved against one of them, the Brahmins drag him before the magistrate, and he is punished by having his tongue cut off. – pg 125 (Vedas preserved by oral recitation – Vaishya and Sudras not allowed to even hear it – stress on its purity)

Of Vedas – first Veda written in Kashmir by Vasukra – and Puranas – pg 125-131

On the process of becoming god and seeking liberation from the world ….the book of Patanjali, on the search for liberation and for the union of the soul with the object of its meditation ;– pg 131-132 (becoming God)

Various other books of Hindus – pg 132

Mahabharata – pg 133

Chap – 13 : THEIR GRAMMATICAL AND METRICAL LITERATURE

vyakarana, i.e. the law of the correctness of their speech and etymological rules, by means of which they acquire an eloquent and classical style both in writing and reading. – pg 135

Grammar is followed by another science, called chandas, i.c. the metrical form of poetry, corresponding to our metrics^—a science indispensable to them, since  their books are in verse. By composing their books in  metrcs they intend to facilitate their being learned by heart, and to prevent people in all questions of science ever recurring to a written text, save in a case

of bare necessity. For they think that the mind of man sympathises with everything in which there is symmetry and order, and has an aversion to everything in which there is no order. Therefore most Hindus are passionately fond of their verses, and always desirous of reciting them, even if they do not understand the meaning of the words, and the audience will snap their fingers in token of joy and applause. – pg 137  ( learning by rote is in genes of Hindus)

Grammar explained in detail – having mathematical methodology – pg 137-151 (beyond my comprehension – but can be of great interest to any linguist)

As far as I can guess with regard to the literature of the Greeks, they used in their poetry similar feet to the Hindus – pg 151 (Greek Parallel)

Chap 14 : HINDU LITERATURE IN THE OTHER SCIENCES, ASTRONOMY, ASTROLOGY, ETC.

(Discusses various books and authors and mentions exchange of ideas with Greeks and Romans)

They have five Siddhantas:—

I. Siarya-siddhdnta, i.e. the Siddhanta of the sun, composed by Lata.

I I . Vasishtha-siddhdnta, so called from one of the stars of the Great Bear, composed by Vishnu candra,

I I I . Pulisa-siddlidnta, so called from Paulisa, the Greek, from the city of Saintra, which I suppose to be

Alexandria, composed by Pulisa.

IV. Romaka-siddhdnta, so called from the Rum, i.e the subjects of the Roman Empire, composed by

Srishena.

V. Brahmasiddhdnta, so called from Brahman, composed by Brahmagupta, the son of Jishnu, from the

town of Bhillamala between Multan and Anhilwara, 16 yojana from the latter place (?).

The authors of these books draw from one and the same source, the Book Paithdmalia, so called from the

first father, i.e. Brahman. – pg 153 (various school of thoughts including Roman, Greek, etc were studied by Hindus)

But there is another book still larger than this, which comprehends the whole of astrological sciences, called Yavana, i.e. belonging to the Greeks. – pg 158

Medicine belongs to the same class of sciences as astronomy, but there is this difference, that the latter stands in close relation to the religion of the Hindus. They have a book called by the name of its author, i.e. Caraka, which they consider as the best of their

whole literature on medicine. ……This book has been translated into Arabic for the princes of the house of the Barmecides. – pg 159

The Hindus cultivate numerous other branches of science and literature, and have a nearly boundless literature. I, however, could not comprehend it with my knowledge – pg 159 (Vastness of knowledge)

I wish I could translate the book Panchantra, known among us as the book of Kalila and Dimna, It is far spread in various languages, in Persian, Hindi, and Arabic – pg 159 (Panchantra)

Chap 15 : NOTES ON HINDU METROLOGY, INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE UNDERSTANDING OF ALL KINDS OF MEASUREMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN THIS BOOK.

Discusses various measuring methods and also value of pie

Chap 16 : NOTES ON THE WRITING OF THE HINDUS, ON THEIR ARITHMETIC AND RELATED SUBJECTS, AND ON CERTAIN STRANGE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THEIRS.

The Hindus are not in the habit of writing on hides, like the Greeks in ancient times. Socrates, on being asked why he did not compose books, gave this reply: " I do not transfer knowledge from the living hearts of men to the dead hides of sheep." – pg 170 (most knowledge transferred orally)

It was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper into Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want. – pg 171 (introduction of paper)

Of writing and writing pads – pg 170-173

The most generally known alphabet is called Siddhamatrika, which is by some considered as originating the Hindus.

from Kashmir, for the people of Kashmir use it. But it is also used in Varanasi, This town and Kashmir are the high schools of Hindu sciences. – pg 173 (Kashmir and Varanasi – being the centres of Hindu learning)

The numeral signs which we use are derived from the finest forms of the Hindu signs – pg 174 (Hindu numerals)

In arithmetic all nations agree that all the orders of numbers (e.g. one, ten, hundred, thousand) stand in a certain relation to the ten; that each order is the tenth part of the following and the tenfold of the preceding. I have studied the names of the orders of the numbers in various languages with all kinds of people with whom I have been in contact, and have found that no nation goes beyond the thousand. The Arabs, too, stop with the thousand, which is certainly the most correct and the most natural thing to do. I have written a separate'treatise on this subject.

Those, however, who go beyond the thousand in their numeral system are the Hindus, at least in their arithmetical technical terms, which have been either freely invented or derived according to certain etymologies, whilst in others both methods are blended together. They extend the names of the orders of numbers until the 18th order for religious reasons, the mathematicians

being assisted by the grammarians with all kinds of etymologies. – pg 174 (comparison between Hindus and other nations regarding the relative use of numbers – Hindus were counting till 10 to the power of 18 whereas other nations were stuck in thousands)

The Hindus use the numeral signs in arithmetic in the same way as we do. I have composed a treatise showing how far, possibly, the Hindus are ahead of us in this subject. – pg 177 ( Hindus ahead of Arabs in mathematics)

Many Hindu customs differ from those of our country and of our time to such a degree as to appear to us simply monstrous. One might almost think that they had intentionally changed them into the opposite, for our customs do not resemble theirs, but are the very reverse; and if ever a custom of theirs resembles one of ours, it has certainly just the opposite meaning. – pg 179 (Hindu customs opposite to that of muslims)

'They have red teeth in consequence of chewing arecanuts with betel-leaves and chalk. – pg 180 (chewing paan an old custom)

In all consultations and emergencies they take the advice of the women – pg 181 (respect for women).

When a child is born people show particular attention to the man, not to the woman. – pg 181

Of two children they give the preference to the younger, particularly in the eastern parts of the country; for they maintain that the elder owes his birth to predominant lust, whilst the younger owes his origin to mature reflection and a calm proceeding.

They do not ask permission to enter a house, but when they leave it they ask permission to do so. – pg 182

Trying to state the superiority of Islam over Hinduism and pre-Islamic Arabs – pg 185-86

Chap  17 : ON HINDU SCIENCES WHICH PREY ON THE IGNORANCE OF PEOPLE

Denouncing Alchemy which is present in all nations of the day – pg 187-188

Super natural stories about alchemy– pg 189-192

Alchemy leading to superstition among Hindus – pg 192

As regards charms and incantations, the Hindus have a firm belief in them, and they, as a rule, are much inclined towards them.- pg 192 (superstition)

Charms / sorcerery common to all nations – pg 195

Chap 18 : VARIOUS NOTES ON THEIR COUNTRY, THEIR RIVERS, AND THEIR OCEAN, ITINERARIES OF THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THEIR SEVERAL KINGDOMS, AND BETWEEN THE BOUNDARIES OF THEIR COUNTRY

On the plains of this continent live the western negroes, whence the slaves are brought; - pg 197 (Islamic trade in slaves)

Topography of the country – pg 197-212

The Brahmins have the privilege of eating the flesh of the ganda (rhinoceros ) – pg 204

In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country, particularly Jews, but at present they do not allow any Hindu whom they do not know personally to enter, much less other people- pg 206 (Kashmiri insular)

Some of the inhabitants of the Wdkwdk island are of black colour. In our countries there is a great demand for them as slaves. – pg 211 (slavery in Islam)

Chap 19 : ON THE NAMES OF THE PLANETS, THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC, TIIE LUNAR STATIONS, AND RELATED SUBJECTS

Chap 20 : ON THE BRAHMANDA

BRAHMANDA means the egg of Brahman, and applies in reality to the whole of heaven (a.iOrjp), on account of its coming

being round, …In consequence, they believe that the earth is at rest,..According to the enigmatic expressions of their tradition, the water was before every other thing, and it filled the space of the whole world. – pg 221 (Earth Round but stationary and water being the first element)

Similar opinions were held by the ancient Greeks regarding Asclepius, the inventor of the medical art; for, according to Galenus, they represent him as holding an egg in his hand, whereby they mean to indicate that the world is round, the egg an image of the universe, - pg 222 (parallel with Greeks)

Asclepius does not hold a lower position in the belief of the Greeks than Brahman in the belief of the Hindus, for they say that he is a divine power, and that his name is derived from his action – pg 222 (parallel with Greeks)

The theory of the Hindus, that the water existed before all creation, rests on this, that it is the cause of the cohesion of the atoms of everything, the cause of the growing of everything, and of the duration of life in every animated being. Thus the water is an instrument in the hand of the Creator when he wants to create something out of matter. – pg 222 (importance of water – life from water)

So Plato says in his Timmus something like the Brahmanda : " The Creator cut a straight thread into halves. With each of them he described a circle, so that the two circles met in two places, and one of them he divided into seven parts." – pg 223 (parallel with Greeks)

The commentor Balabhadra says : " We do not consider these numbers as a measure of heaven, for we cannot define its greatness, but we consider them as the utmost limit to which the human power of vision can penetrate. There is no possibility of human perception reaching above it ; but the other spheres differ from each other in greatness and smallness, so as to be visible in various degrees." – pg 225 (acceptance of their limitations)

The followers of Aryabhata say : " I t is sufficient for us to know the space which is reached by the solar rays. We do not want the space which is not reached by the solar rays, though it be in itself of an enormous extent. That which is not reached by the

rays is not reached by the perception of the senses, and that which is not reached by perception is not knowable." – pg 225 (acceptance of their limitations)

one might almost think that they had a knowledge of the words of Aristotle which we have quoted – pg 226 (exchange of information with Greeks)

Chap 21 : DESCRIPTION OF EARTH AND HEAVEN ACCORDING TO THE RELIGIOUS VIEWS OF THE HINDUS, BASED UPON THEIR TRADITIONAL LITERATURE.

After the earths follow the heavens, consisting of seven stories, one above the other. They are called loka, which means " gather ing-place." In a similar manner also the Greeks considered the heavens as gathering- places – pg 231 (Hindus considered universe made of seven stories – similar to Greeks)

The poet Homer says: " Thou hast made the pure heaven an eternal dwelling-place for the gods. The winds do not shake it, the rains do not

wet it, and the snow does not destroy it. For in it there is resplendent clearness without any covering cloud."Plato says : " God spoke to the seven planets : You are the gods of the gods, and I am the father of the actions; I am he who made you so that no dissolution is possible; for anything bound, though capable of being loosened, is not exposed to destruction, as long as its order is good."

Aristotle says in his letter to Alexander: " The world is the order of the whole creation. That which is above the world, and surrounds it on the sides, is the dwelling-place of the gods. Heaven is full of the gods to which we give the name of stars." In another place of the same book he says, " The earth is bounded by the water, the water by the air, the air by the fire, the fire by the aWrjp. Therefore the highest place is the dwelling-place of the gods, and the lowest, the home of the aquatic animals." – pg 231-232 (similar thought of Greeks)

There is a similar passage in the Vayu-Purana to this effect, that the earth is held in its grasp by the water, the water by the pure fire, the fire by the wind, the wind by heaven, and heaven by its lord. – pg 232 (parallel to Greeks)

According to the religious traditions of the Hindus, the earth on which we live is round and surrounded by a sea. – pg 233

Hindu gave dimensions to the heaven, earth and hell – pg 236

Chap 22 : TRADITIONS RELATING TO THE POLE

Mythological stories around stars

Chap 23 : ON MOUNT MERU ACCORDING TO THE BELIEF OF THE AUTHORS OF THE PURANAS AND OF OTHERS.

Brahmagupta says: " Manifold are the opinions of people relating to the description of the earth and to Mount Meru, particularly

among those who study the Puranas and the religious literature. Some describe this mountain as rising above the surface of the earth to an excessive height. I t is situated under the pole, and the stars revolve round its foot, so that rising and setting depends upon Meru. It is called Meru because of its having the faculty of doing this, and because it depends alone upon the influence of its head that sun and moon become visible. The day of the angels who inhabit Meru lasts six months, and their night also six

months." – pg 243 (North Pole?)

The Matsya-Purana says : ….It has four different colours on its four sides. The colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of the Brahmins, that of the northern is red like that of the Kshatriya, that of the southern is yellow like the colour of the Vaisya, and that of the western is black like the colour of the Sudra. …pg 247 (all varnas represented by 4 sides of mount meru)

Similar views are held by the Zoroastrians of Sogdiana, viz. that the mountain Ardiya surrounds the world ; that outside of it is khom, similar to the pupil of the eye, in which there is something of everything, and that behind it there is a vacuum. – pg 249 (similar reasoning to Mount Meru existed in other civilazations)

(Hindus were not afraid to think big and put the numbers to the un-known phenomena. They conceptualized Mount Meru in order to explain the cosmological unknowns. They included science with religion and different texts gave different explanations.I would relate the conceptualization of Mount Meru with String Theory – where scientists bring in imaginary concepts to provide explanation for the unknown)

Chap 24 : TRADITIONS OF THE PURANAS REGARDING EACH OF THE SEVEN  DVIPAS.

….Kusa Dvipa has seven kingdoms and innumerable rivers flowing to the sea, which are then changed by Indra into rain.- pg 254 (concept of evaporation / condensation??)

Various divapas are mythologised, each with its own society. Most of them having their own varna (caste) system and one not having any.

Chap 25 : ON THE RIVERS OF INDIA, THEIR SOURCES AND COURSES

Chap 26 : ON THE SHAPE OF HEAVEN AND EARTH ACCORDING TO THE HINDU ASTRONOMERS

Together with the inventions of the above mentioned Judaistic party, they formed a religious system which was declared to be the Islam, but with which God has nothing whatever to do. Whoso opposes it and firmly adheres to the orthodox faith in conformity

with the Koran is stigmatised by them as an infidel and heretic and condemned to death, and they will not allow him to hear the word of the Koran  All these acts of theirs are more impious than even the words of Pharaoh, " I am your highest lord" (Sura, 79, 24), and " I do not know of any god for you save myself " (Sura, 28, 38). If party spirit of this kind will go on and rule for a long time, we may easily decline from the straight path of honour and duty. We, however, take our refuge with God, who renders firm the foot of every one whp seeks Him, and who seeks the truth about Him. – pg 264 (Islam intolerant even then)

The religious books of the Hindus and their codes of tradition, the Puranas, contain sentences about the shape of the world which stand in direct opposition to scientific truth as known to their astronomers. By these books people are guided in fulfilling the rites of their religion, and by means of them the great mass of the nation have been wheedled into a predilection for astronomical calculation and astrological predictions and warnings. The consequence is, that they show much affection to their astronomers, declaring that they are excellent men, that it is a good omen to meet them, and firmly believing that all of them come into Paradise and none into hell. …… This is the reason why the two theories, the vulgar and the scientific, have become intermingled in the course of time, why the doctrine  doctrines of the astronomers have been disturbed and confused …. Pg 264 – 65 (Hindu science and religious texts were opposite as far as astronomy was concerned – but ordinary Hindus respected scientist despite opposing religious views – contrast that with Christian theology and treatment meted out to Gallilio)

(As scientists were respected so they mixed religious mumbo-jumbo into their works – hence both religion and science co-existed peacefully and this even led to confused scientific texts).

We shall now explain the views of Hindu astronomers regarding the present subject, viz. the shape of heaven and earth. According to them, heaven as well as the whole world is round, and the earth has a globular shape, the northern half being dry land, the southern half being covered with water. The dimension of the earth is larger according to them than it is according to the Greeks and modern observations, and in their calculations to find this dimension they have entirely given up any mention of the traditional seas and Dvipas, and of the enormous sums of yojana attributed to each of them. The astronomers follow the theologians in everything which does not encroach upon their science, e.g. they adopt the theory of Mount Meru being under the north pole, and that of the island Vadaviimukha lying under the south pole. Now, it is entirely irrelevant whether Meru is there or not, as it is only required for the explanation of the particular mill-like rotation, which is necessitated by the fact that to each spot on the plane of the earth corresponds a spot in the sky as its zenith. Also the fable of the southern island Vadavamukha does no harm to their science, although it is possible, nay, even likely, that each pair of quarters of the earth forms a coherent, uninterrupted unity, the one as a continent, the other as an ocean (and that in reality there is no such island under the south pole). Such a disposition of the earth is required by the law of gravitation, for according to them the earth is in the centre of the universe, and everything heavy gravitates towards it. Evidently on account of this law of gravitation they consider heaven, too, as

having a globular shape. – pg 266 (Hindus believed earth to be round – globe shaped. In order to know the shape they did NOT take into account the assumed sea or mount Meru – scientist follow religion but do NOT allow religious mumbo-jumbo to influence their work. Hindus conceptualized Mount Meru in order to explain certain observations )

All Hindu scholars (Varahamihira, Aryabhata, Deva, Srishena, Vishnucandra, Brahman, Vasishtha and Lata) ,agree on the globular shape of the earth – as no other shape could explain the observable phenomena; concept of equator, two pole, axis, different time zones,  – pg 266-269

Equator, Island in South (Antartica?) and Mount Meru in North; Northen hemisphere consisting of land and Southern hemisphere consisting of sea – though there are exceptions. Gravitation - attraction  of everything towards the centre of earth – pg 269 – 271

Hindus had the concept of gravitation ie attraction towards the centre of earth, round shape of earth but earth was considered as the centre of universe.

Brahmagupta says in another place of the same book : "The followers of Aryabhata maintain that the earth is moving and heaven resting. People have tried to refute them by saying that, if such were the case, stones and trees would fall from the earth." – pg 276-77 (Aryabhata says it is the earth that moves)

Chap 27 : ON THE FIRST TWO MOTIONS OF THE UNIVERSE (THAT FROM EAST TO WEST ACCORDING TO ANCIENT

ASTRONOMERS AND THE PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES), BOTH ACCORDING TO HINDU ASTRONOMERS AND THE AUTHORS OF THE PURANAS,

…but some people think that the earth moves while the sun is resting. – pg 280

Chap 28 : ON THE DEFINITION OF THE TEN DIRECTIONS

The Hindus can never speak of anything, be it an object of the intellect or of imagination, without representing it as a personification, an individual. They at once marry him, make him celebrate marriage, make his wife become pregnant and give birth to something. So, too, in this case. The Vishnu-Dharma relates that Atri, the star who rules the stars of the Great Bear,

married the directions, represented as one person, though they are eight in number, and that from her the moon was born. Another author relates : Dakska, i.e. Prajapati, married Dharma, i.e. the reward, to ten of his daughters, i.e. the ten directions. From one of them he had many children. She was called Vasu, and her children the Vasus. One of them was the moon.

No doubt our people, the Muslims, will laugh at such a birth of the moon. But I give them still more of this stuff. Thus, e.g. they relate : The sun, the son of Kasyapa and of Aditya, his wife, was born in the sixth Manvantara on the lunar station Visakha ; the moon, the son of Dharma, was born on the station Krittika; Mars, the son of Prajapati, on Purvashadha ; Mercury, the son of

the moon, on Dhanishtha ; Jupiter, the son of Angiras, on Piirvaphalguni; Venus, the daughter of Bhrigu, on Pushya ; Saturn on Revati; the Bearer of the Tail, the son of Yama, the angel of death, on Aslesha, and the Head on Revati. – pg 291 (rationale of hindu mythology)

Chap 29 : DEFINITION OF THE INHABITABLE EARTH ACCORDING TO THE HINDUS.

IN the book of the Rishi Bhuvanakosa we read that the inhabitable world stretches from Himavant towards the south, and is called Bharata-varsha, so called from a man, Bharata, who ruled over them and provided for them. The inhabitants of this olKovp-ev-q are those to whom alone reward and punishment in another life are destined. – pg 294 (Bharat)

According to him, therefore, there are no human beings outside the  Bharatavarsha – pg 294 (whole humanity as Bharat).

Bharatavarsha is not India alone, as Hindus think, according to whom their country is the world, and their race the only race of mankind; …..Further, it follows from his statement that all the inhabitants of the earth and the Hindus are subject to reward

and punishment, that they are one great religious community. Pg 295 (universality – everyone is Hindu subject to same laws)

All these countries are parts of India proper. – pg 298 (various states like Mathura, Magdha, Kalinga, etc r part of India)

In what way the Hindus determine the latitude of a place has not come to our knowledge. That the longitude of the inhabitable world is a half-circle is a far-spread theory among their astronomers; they differ (from Western astronomers) only as to the point which is to be its beginning – pg 304.(Hindus in step with latest other developments in other parts of world)

Chap 30 : ON LANKA, OR THE CUPOLA OF THE EARTH

The Hindus who are the neighbours of those regions (of Lanka) believe that the small-pox is a wind blowing from the island of Lanka towards the continent to carry off souls. – pg 309 (superstition regarding Lanka)

And this my conjecture is strengthened by the fact that, according to the book of Rama and Ramayana, behind the well-known country of Sindh there are cannibals. Pg 310 (fear of people outside  the boundary of India)

Chap 31 : ON THAT DIFFERENCE OF VARIOUS PLACES WHICH WE CALL THE DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE

This method of calculation is found in the astronomical handbooks of the Hindus in conformity with the account of Alfazari, save in one particular. – pg 315 (exchange of information or borrowing of Hindu methodology by muslim scholars – howsoever wrong it may be)

We, however have found a totally different latitude of Ujain in the same book in a calculation relating to the distance between Ujain and Almansura, which the author calls Brahmanavata, i.e. Bamhanwa, viz. latitude of Ujain, 22° 2 9 ' ; latitude of Almanshra, 24° i'……On the other hand, however, all the canons of the Hindus agree in this, that the latitude of Ujain is 24

degrees, and that the sun culminates over it at the time of the summer solstice..     pg 316 - 317 (pretty accurate Ujain latitude is 23deg 1 min)

Balabhadra, the commentator, gives as the latitude of Kanoj 26° 3 5 '- pg 317 (actual latitude is 27 deg) ;

The learned Abu-Ahmad, the son of Catlaghtagin, calculated the latitude of the city of Karli (?), and found it to be 28° o', that of Taneshar 27', and both places to be distant from each other by three days' marches.- pg 317 (muslim scholars travelling)

According to the book Karanasdra, the latitude of Kashmir is 34° 9', pg 317 (actual latitude of Srinagar  is 34 deg)

Chap 32 : ON THE NOTIONS OF DURATION AND TIME IN GENERAL, AND ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD AND ITS

DESTRUCTION

Plato in the book Timceus: "The 6eot, i.e. the gods, who, according to an order of their father, carried out the creation of man, took an immortal soul and made it the beginning; thereupon they fashioned like a turner a mortal body upon it." – pg 322 (Greek thought on origin of universe)

According to them, this duration is a day of Brahman and a consecutive night of Brahman ; for Brahman is intrusted with creating. Further, the coming into existence is a motion in that which grows out of something different from itself, and the most apparent of the causes of this motion are the meteoric motors, i.e. the stars. These, however, will never exercise regular influences on the world below them unless they move and change their shapes in every direction ( = their aspects). Therefore the coming into existence is limited to the day of Brahman, because in it only, as the Hindus believe, the stars are moving and their spheres revolving according to their pre-established order, and in consequence the process of coming into existence is developed on the surface of the earth without any interruption.

On the contrary, during the night of Brahman the spheres rest from their motions, and all the stars, as well as their apsides and nodes, stand still in one particular place.

In consequence all the affairs of the earth are in one and the same unchanging condition, therefore the coming into existence has ceased, because he who makes things come into existence rests. So both the processes of acting and of being acted upon are suspended; the elements rest from entering into new metamorphoses and combinations, as they rest now in (lacuna; perhaps: the

night), and they prepare themselves to belong to new beings, which will come into existence on the following day of Brahman. In this way existence circulates during the life of Brahman

According to these notions of the Hindus, creation and destruction only refer to the surface of the earth, By such a creation, not one piece of clay comes into existence which did not exist before, and by such a destruction not one piece of clay which exists ceases to exist. It is quite impossible that the Hindus should have the notion of a creation as long as they believe that matter existed from all eternity.

The Hindus represent to their common people the two durations here mentioned, the day of Brahman and the night of Brahman, as his waking and sleeping ; and we do not disapprove of these terms, as they denote something which has a beginning and end. Further, the whole of the life of Brahman, consisting of a succession of motion and rest in the world during such a period, is considered as applying only to existence, not to non-existence, since during it the piece of clay exists and, besides, also its shape. The life of Brahman is only a clay for that being who is above him, i.e. Purusha (cf.chap. XXXV.). When he dies all compounds are dissolved during his night, and in consequence of the annihilation of the compounds, that also is suspended which kept him (Brahman) within the laws of nature. This, then, is the rest of Purusha, and of all that is under his control (lit. and of his vehicles).

Therefore the educated Hindus do not share these opinions (regarding the waking and sleeping of Brahman), for they know the real nature of sleep. They know that the body, a compound of antipathetic humores, requires sleep for the purpose of resting, and for this purpose that all which nature requires, after being wasted, should be duly replaced. – pg 322 – 324 (Hindu theory on creation and destruction of universe)

Chap 33 : ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF THE DAY OR NYCHTHE.MERON, AND ON DAY AND NIGHT IN PARTICULAR.

ACCORDING to the general usage of Muslims, Hindus, and others, a day or nychthemeron means the duration of one revolution of the sun in a rotation of the universe, in which he starts from the one half of a great circle and returns to the same. Apparently it is divided into two halves : the day (i.e. the time of the sun's being visible to the inhabitants of a certain place on earth), and the night (i.e. the time of his being invisible to them). His being visible and being invisible are relative facts, which differ as the horizons differ. – pg 327 (Most scholars were of the opinion that Sun revolves around earth)

I t is well known that the horizon of the equator, which the Hindus call the country without latitude, cuts the circles parallel to the meridian in two halves. In consequence, day and night are always equal there. However, the horizons which cut the parallel circles without passing through their pole divide them into two unequal halves, the more so the smaller the parallel circles are. In consequence, there day and night are unequal, except at the times of the two equinoxes, when on the whole earth, except Mem and Vadavamukha, day and night are equal. Then all the places north and south of the line share in this peculiarity of the line, but only at this time, not at any other. – pg 327 (Equinoxes, Equator)

For those who live under the north pole the sun appears above the horizon, therefore they have day, whilst for those living under the south pole the sun is concealed below the horizon, and therefore they have night. When, then, the sun migrates to the southern signs, he revolves like a mill below the horizon (i.e.south of the equator); hence it is night to the people living under the north pole and day to those living under the south pole. – pg 329 ( day and night at poles)

The length of the nychthemeron of Brahman is 8,640,000,000 of our years. During one half of it, i.e. during the day, the tether, with all that is in it, is moving, the earth is producing, and the changes of existence and destruction are constantly going on upon the surface of the earth. During the other half, i.e. the night, there occurs the opposite of everything which occurs in the day ; the earth is not changing, because those things which produce the changes are resting and all motions are stopped, as nature rests in the night and in the winter, and concentrates itself, preparing for a new existence in the day and in the summer. – pg 332 (The complete day of Brahma is 8.6 billion years of which 4.3 billion is day and 4.3 billion is nigh ie earth / cosmos is formed in 4.3 billion years ago – this corresponds well with modern calculation of the age of earth which is near to 4.5 billion years – important thing is that Hindu were thinking in billions of years whereas others were stuck in thousands)

The Hindus agree in assigning to the life of Brahman a hundred of his years. The number of our years which corresponds to one of his years betrays itself to be a multiplication of 360 with the number of our years, which correspond to one nychthemeron of his. We have already mentioned (p. 331) the length of the nychthemeron of Brahman. Now the length of a year of Brahman is 3,110,400,000,000 of our years (i.e. 360 X 8,640,000,000). A hundred years of the same kind, reckoned in our years, are represented by the same number increased by two ciphers, so that you get in the whole ten ciphers, viz. 311,040,000,000,000.

This space of time is a day of Purusha; therefore his nychthemeron is double of it, viz. 622,080,000,000,000 of our years.

These terms must, on the whole, be rather considered as a philosophical means of conveying an abstract notion of time than as mathematical values composed of the various kinds of numbers, for they are derived from the processes of combination and dissolution, of procreation and destruction. – pg 332-333 (thought process running into trillions)

Chap 34 : ON THE DIVISION OF THE NYCHTHEMERON INTO MINOR PARTICLES OF TIME.

THE Hindus are foolishly painstaking in inventing the most minute particles of time, but their efforts have not resulted in a universally adopted and uniform system. – pg 334 (division of time into smallest possible unit)

In the first instance, the nychthemeron is divided into sixty minutes or ghati…… Each minutc is divided into sixty seconds, called

cashaka or cakhaka, and also vighatika… Each second is divided into six parts or prdna, i.e. breath. – pg 334.

I t is all the same whether we determine the prana according to this rule (one nychthemeron = 21,600 prana), or if we divide each ghati into 360 parts (60 X 360 = 21,600), or each degree of the sphere into sixty parts (360 X 60 = 21,600).

The whole day (24 hours) is divided maximum  into 88,473,600 anu  - pg 337

Nobody in India uses the hours except the astrologers for they speak of the dominants of the hours, and, in consequence,

also of dominants of the nychthemera. ….. They call the hour hora, and this name seems to indicate that in reality they use the horce obliquce temporales; for the Hindus call the media signorum (the centres of the signs of the zodiac) hora, which we Muslims call nimbahr (cf. chap. Ixxx.). The reason is this, that in each day and each night always six signs rise above the horizon. If, therefore, the hour is called by the name of the centre of a sign, each day and each night has twelve hours, and in consequence the hours used in the theory of the dominants of the hours are horce obliquce temporales, as they are used in our country and are inscribed on the astrolabes on account of these dominants. – pg 343 (Hour)

Chap 35 : ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONTHS AND YEARS

A month has 30 lunar days, for this number is canonical, as the number of 360 is canonical for the number of days of a year. The solar month has 30 solar days and 30   1,362, 987/3,110,400 civil days.

The month of the fathers is equal to 30 of our months, and has 885   163,410/ 178,111 civil days.

The month of the angels is equal to 30 years, and has 10 , 9 5 7    241/320  civil days.

The month of Brahman is equal to 60 kalpas, and has 94,674,987,000,000 civil days.

The month of Purusha is equal to 2,160,000 kalpas, and has 3,408,299,532,000,000,000 civil days.

The month of Kha has 9,497,498,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 civil days.

Various By multiplying each of these months by twelve, we get the number of days of the corresponding year.

The lunar year has 354    65,364/  178,111 civil days.

The solar year has 365  827/ 3200 civil days.

The year of the fathers has 360 lunar months, or 10,631  1699/178,111 civil days.

The year of the angels has 360 of our years, or 131,493  3/80 civil days.

The year of Brahman has 720 kalpas, or 1,136,099,844,000,000 civil days.

The year of Purusha has 25,920,000 kalpas, or 40,899,594,384,000,000,000 civil days.

The year of Kha has 113,6o9,984,4co,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooocivildays.

-pg 350 ( Hindus were not afraid of using numbers ; their calculation of solar year (365.258 days is quite near to the modern calculation of 365.242 days)

The day of Purusha is simply an abstraction of the Hindu mind to denote that which is above the soul (dtman), for they make no distinction between purusha and atman except in the order or sequence in which they enumerate them. – pg 351 (Hindus knew that other imaginary ages are an abstraction of mind)

Chap 36 : ON THE FOUR MEASURES OF TIME CALLED MANA.

the cikitsa, i.e. certain months and years in which Hindu medical science prescribes the taking certain medicines; further in determining the prayascitta, i.e. the days of the expiations which the Brahmans make obligatory for those who have committed some sin, times during which they are obliged to fast and to besmear themselves with butter and dung – pg 355 (days for medical check-ups and to atone for sins committed)

Chap 37 : ON THE PARTS OF THE MONTH AND THE YEAR

Chap 38 : ON THE VARIOUS MEASURES OF TIME COMPOSED OF DAYS, THE LIFE OF BRAHMAN INCLUDED.

The book Vishnu-Dharma has a tradition from Markandeya, who answers a question of Vajra in these words: "Kalpa is the day of Brahman, and the same is a night of his. Therefore 720 kalpas are a year of his, and his life has lOO such years. These 100 years are one day of Purusha, and the same is a night of his. How many Brahmans, however, have already preceded Purusha, none knows but he who can count the sand of the Ganges or the drops of the rain," – pg 360 (counting the origin in huge numbers; Brahma having limited life; acceptance of vastness and limit of knowledge)

Chap 39 : ON MEASUEES OF TIME WHICH ARE LARGER THAN THE LIFE OF BRAHMAN,

ALL that is devoid of order or contradicts the rules laid down in the preceding' parts of this book is repulsive to our nature and disagreeable to our ear. But Hindus are people who mention a number of names, all—as they maintain—referring to the One, the First, or to some one behind him who is only hinted at. When they come to a chapter like this, they repeat the same names as denoting a multitude of beings, measuring out lives for them and inventing huge numbers, The latter is all they want; they indulge in it most freely, and numbers are patient, standing as you place them. Besides, there is not a single subject on which

the Hindus themselves agree among each other, and this prevents us on our part adopting the use of it. On the contrary, they disagree on these imaginary measures of time to the same extent as on the divisions of the day which are less than a prana – pg 361 (Inventing huge numbers; disagreeing with each other)

Chap 40 : ON THE SAMDHI, THE INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO PERIODS OF TIME, FORMING THE CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN

THEM,

Chap 41 : DEFINITION OF THE TEEMS " KALPA " AND " CATURYUGA," AND AN EXPLICATION OF THE ONE BY THE OTHER.

Chap 42 : ON THE DIVISION OF THE CATUEYUGA INTO YUGAS, AND THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS REGARDING THE LATTER

As regards the Greeks, we may notice that they have nothing like the tradition of the Smriti, for they do not measure time by yugas, manvantaras, or kalpas – pg 374 (Al Beruni is constantly comparing Hindu sciences with Greeks).

He (Brahmagupta)  is rude enough to compare Aryabhata to a worm which, eating the wood, by chance describes certain characters in it, without understanding them and without intending to draw them, " He, however, who knows these things thoroughly stands opposite to Aryabhata, Srishena, and Vishnucandra like the lion against gazelles. They are not capable of letting him see their faces." In such offensive terms he attacks Aryabhata and maltreats him. – pg 376 (Difference of opinion between Hindu scientists)

Chap 43 : A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOUR YUGAS, AND OF ALL THAT IS EXPECTED TO TAKE PLACE AT THE END OF THE FOURTH YUGA,

(The Greeks and Hindus held the similar belief regarding the birth, sustenance, destruction and rebirth of society)

THE ancient Greeks held regarding the earth various opinions, of which we shall relate one for the sake of an example.

The disasters which from time to time befal the earth both from above and from below, differ in quality and quantity. Frequently it has experienced one so incommensurable in quality or in quantity, or in both together, that there was no remedy against it, and that no flight or caution was of any avail. The catastrophe comes on like a deluge or an earthquake, bringing destruction either by the breaking in of the surface, or by drowning with water which breaks forth, or by burning with hot stones and ashes that are thrown out, by thunderstorms, by landslips, and typhoons ; further, by contagious and other diseases, by pestilence, and more of the like. Thereby a large region is stripped of its inhabitants; but when after a while, after the disaster and its consequences have passed away, the country begins to recover and to show new signs of life, then different people flock there together like wild animals, who formerly were dwelling in hiding-holes and on the tops of the mountains. They become civilised by assisting each other against common foes, wild beasts or men, and furthering each other in the hope for a life in safety and joy. Thus they increase to great numbers ; but then ambition, circling round them with the wings of wrath and envy, begins to disturb the serene bliss of their life.

Sometimes a nation of such a kind derives its pedigree from a person who first settled in the place or distinguished himself by something or other, so that he alone continues to live in the recollection of the succeeding generations, whilst all others beside him are forgotten, Plato mentions in the Book of Laws Zeus, i.e. Jupiter, as the forefather of the Greeks, and to Zeus is traced back the pedigree of Hippocrates, which is mentioned in the last chapters added at the end of the book. We must, however, observe that the pedigree contains only very few generations, not more than fourteen. It is the following :—Hippokrates—Gnosidikos—Nebros—Sostratos — Theodores —• Kleomyttades — Krisamis —Dardanas—Sostratos—Hippolochos—Podaleirios — Machaon—Asclepios—Apollo—Zeus—Kronos, i.e. Saturn. – pg 378 – 379 (Greek View)

The Hindus have similar traditions regarding the Caturyuga, for according to them, at the beginning of it, i.e. at the beginning of Kritayuga, there was happiness and safety, fertility and abundance, health and force ample knowledge and a great number of Brahmans, The good is complete in this age, like four-fourths of a whole, and life lasted 4000 years alike for all beings during this whole space of time. Thereupon things began to decrease and to be mixed with opposite elements to such a degree, that at the

beginning of Tretayuga the good was thrice as much as the invading bad, and that bliss was three-quarters of the whole. There were a greater number of Kshatriyas than of Brahmans, and life had the same length as in the preceding age. So it is represented by the Vishnu-Dharma, whilst analogy requires that it should be shorter by the same amount than bliss is smaller, i.e. by one-fourth. In this age, when offering to the fire they begin to kill animals and to tear off plants, practices which before were unknown. Thus the evil increases till, at the beginning of Dvapara, evil and good exist in equal proportions, and likewise

bliss and misfortune. The climates begin to differ, there is much killing going on, and the religions become different. Life becomes shorter, and lasts only 400 years, according to the Vishnu-Dhar7na. At the beginning of Tishya, i.e. Kaliyuga, evil is thrice as much as the remaining good. – pg 380 (Hindu view – philosophizing good and evil)

In the story of Sauuaka which Venus received from Brahman, God speaks to him in the following words : "When the Kaliyuga comes, I send Buddhodana, the son of Suddhodana the pious, to spread the good in the creation. But then the Muhammira, i.e. the red-wearing ones, who derive their origin from him, will change everything that he has brought, and the dignity of the Brahmans will be gone to such a degree that a Shudra, their servant, will be impudent towards them, and that a Sudra and Candala will share with them the presents and offerings. Men will entirely be occupied with gathering wealth by crimes, with hoarding up, not refraining from committing horrid and sinful crimes. All this will result in a rebellion of the small ones against the great ones, of the children against their parents, of the servants against their masters. The castes will be in uproar against each other, the genealogies will become confused, the four castes will be abolished, and there will be many religions and sects. Many books

will be composed, and the communities which formerly were united will on account of them be dissolved into single individuals. The temples will be destroyed and the schools will lie waste. Justice will be gone, and the kings will not know anything but oppression and spoliation, robbing and destroying, as if they wanted to devour the people, foolishly indulging in far-reaching

hopes, and not considering how short life is in comparison with the sins (for which they have to atone). The more the mind of people is depraved, the more will pestilential diseases be prevalent. Lastly, people maintain that most of the astrological rules obtained in that age are void and false. – pg 380-381 (Interesting!! Prediction of Buddha; of Muhammedians changing the peaceful ways of Buddhists; rebellion of low caste people; fighting within intercaste people; abolition of caste system; of many religions and sects; rise of individualism; destruction of temples; etc)

(One more similarity between Greek and Hindu mythology )

The book Caraka, as quoted by 'Ali Ibn Zain of Tabaiistan, says : " In primeval times the earth was always fertile and healthy, and the elements or mahctbhuta were equally mixed. Men lived with each other in harmony and love, without any lust and ambition, hatred and envy, without anything that makes soul and body ill. But then came envy, and lust followed. Driven by lust, they strove to hoard up, which was difficult to some, easy to others. All kinds of thoughts, labours, and cares followed, and resulted in war, deceit, and lying. The hearts of men were hardened, the natures were altered and became exposed to diseases,

which seized hold of men and made them neglect the worship of God and the furtherance of science. Ignorance became deeply rooted, and the calamity became great. Then the pious met before their anchorite Krisa (?) the son of Atreya, and deliberated ; whereupon the sage ascended the mountain and threw himself on the earth. Thereafter God taught him the science of medicine." – pg 382-383 (Hindu mythology)

The following occurs in the third book of the Laws ot Plato :•—' " The Athenian said : ' There have been deluges, diseases,

disasters on earth, from which none has been saved but herdsmen and mountaineers, as the remnants of a race not practised in deceit and in the love of power.'

" The Knossian said : ' At the beginning men loved each other sincerely, feeling lonely in the desert of the world, and because the world had sufficient room for all of them, and did not compel them to any exertion. There was no poverty among them, no possession, no contract. There was no greed among them, and neither silver nor gold. There were no rich people among them and no poor. If we found any of their books, they would afford us numerous proofs for all this.'” – pg 385 (Greek mythology).

Chap 44 : ON THE MANVANTARAS

In the book Vishnu-Dharma Markandeya gives to Vajra the following answer: " Purusha is the lord of the universe ; the lord of the kalpa is Brahman, the lord of the world ; but the lord of the manvantara is Manu. There are fourteen Manus, from whom the kings of the earth, ruling at the beginning of each manvantara, descended." – pg 386 (Huge time scales; and different God is responsible for different time scale)

Chap 45 : ON THE CONSTELLATION OE THE GEEAT BEAR.

We have already mentioned that the books of the Hindus are composed in metres, and therefore the authors indulge in comparisons and epitheta ornantia, such as are admired by their countrymen. Of the same kind is a description of the Great Bear in the Samhita of Varahamihira, where it occurs before the astrological prognostics derived from this constellation. We give

the passage according to our translation : ^— " The northern region is adorned with these stars, as a beautiful woman is adorned with a collar of pearls strung together, and a necklace of white lotus flowers, a handsomely arranged one. Thus adorned, they are

like maidens who dance and revolve round the pole as the pole orders them. And I say, on the authority of Garga, the ancient, the primeval one, that the Great Bear stood in Magha, the tenth lunar station, when Yudhishthira ruled the earth, and the Sakakala was 2526 years after this. The Great Bear remains in each lunar station 600 years, and it rises in the north-east. He (of the Seven Rishis) who then rules the east is Marici; west of him is Vasishtha, then Angiras, Atri, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, and near Vasishtha there is a  chaste woman called Arundhati." – pg 389-390 (Hindu sciences were in lyrical form weaving stories and characters around the known / unknown observations)

Mistakes and confusion such as we have here laid open arise, in the first place, from the want of the necessary skill in astronomical researches, and secondly, from astronomy. the way of the Hindus of mixing up scientific questions with religious traditions. For the theologians believe that the Seven Rishis stand higher than the fixed stars, and they maintain that in each manvantara there will appear a new Manu, whose children will destroy the earth ; but the rule will be renewed by Indra, as also

the different classes of the angels and the Seven Rishis. The angels are necessary, for mankind must offer sacrifices to them and must bring to the fire the shares for them ; and the Seven Rishis are necessary, because they must renew the Veda, for it perishes at the end of each manvantara.-  pg 393 (Hindu sciences were intertwined with religious mythology; Islamic scholars like Al Beruni were mature enough to keep science and religion separate; Hindus had cyclic mode of thought ie everything has an end and then a beginning ) 

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Chap 46 : ON NARAYANA, HIS APPEARANCE AT DIFFERENT TIMES, AND HIS NAMES.

NARAYANA is according to the Hindus a supernatural power, which does not on principle try to bring about the good by the good, nor the bad by the bad, but to prevent the evil and destruction by whatever means happen to be available. For this force the good exists prior to the bad, but if the good does not properly develop nor is available, it uses the bad, this being unavoidable– pg 395 (human nature of God – He cannot do miracles – but will use any method to restore goodness in world)

The same book says: " Also his colours differ in the yugas. In the Kritayuga he is white, in the Tretayuga red, in the Dvapara yellow, the latter is the first phase of his being embodied in human shape, and in the Kaliyuga he is black." These colours are something like the three primary forces of their philosophy, for they maintain that Satya is transparent white. Rajas is  red, and Tamas black. We – pg 398-99  (Colours and  their significance)

Chap 47 : ON VASUDEVA AND THE WARS OF THE BHARATA

THE life of the world depends upon sowing and procreating. Both processes increase in the course of time, and this increase is unlimited, whilst the world is limited.

When a class of plants or animals does not increase any more in its structure, and its peculiar kind is established as a species of its own, when each individual of it does not simply come into existence once and perish, but besides procreates a being like itself or several together, and not only once but several times, then this will as a single species of plants or animals occupy the earth and spread itself and its kind over as much territory as it can find.

The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive.

Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish, for its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realizing that result which they are intended to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others.

If thus the earth is ruined, or is near to be ruined, by having too many inhabitants, its ruler—for it has a ruler, and his all-embracing care is apparent in every single particle of it—sends it a messenger for the purpose of reducing the too great number and of cutting away all that is evil. – pg 400 – 401 (raison d'etre for coming of various avatars of Vishnu to Earth)

Then there was born a child in the city of Mathura to Vasudeva by the sister of Kaihsa, at that time ruler of the town. They

were a Jatt family, cattle-owners, low Sudra people. – pg 401 (Vasudeva a Sudra)

Chap 48 : AN EXPLANATION OF THE MEASURE OF AN AKSHAUHINI

Vol 2 :

Chap 49 : A SUMMARY DESCRIPTION OF THE ERAS

The Hindus do not consider it wearisome to reckon with huge numbers, but rather enjoy it. Still, in practical use, they are compelled to replace them by smaller (more handy) ones.  – pg1 (dealing in huge numbers and enjoying it)

Different Eras (Vikramiditya and Saka) and the history behind them – pg 6

So I have myself seen the roundabout way in which they compute the year of the destruction of Somanath in the

year of the Hijra 416, or 947 Sakakala. – pg 9 (Destruction of Somnath)

The Hiudus had kings residing in Kabul – pg 10

Unfortunately the Hindus do not pay much attention to the historical order of things, they are very careless in relating the chronological succession of their kings, and when they are pressed for information and are at a loss, not knowing what to say, they invariably take to tale-telling. – pg 9-10 (Hindus not recording their history)

After him ruled the Brahman kings Samand (Samanta), Kamalu, Bhim (Bhima), Jaipal (Jayapala), Anandapala, Tarojanapala (Trilocanapala). The latter was killed A.H. 412 (A.D. 102 I ) , and his son Bhimapala five years later (A.D. 1026).

This Hindu Shahiya dynasty is now extinct, and of the whole house there is no longer the slightest remnant in existence. We must say that, in all their grandeur, they never slackened in the ardent desire of doing that which is good and right, that they were men

of noble sentiment and noble bearing. I admire the following passage in a letter of Anandapala, which he wrote to the prince Mahmud, when the relations between them were already strained to the utmost: " I have learned that the Turks have rebelled against you and are spreading in Khurasan. If you wish, I shall come to you with 5000 horsemen, 10,000 foot-soldiers, and 100 elephants, or, if you wish, I shall send you my son with double the number. In acting thus, I do not speculate on the impression which this will make on you. I have been conquered by you, and therefore I do not wish that another man should

conquer you."

The same prince cherished the bitterest hatred against the Muhammadans from the time when his son was

made a prisoner, whilst his son Tarojanapala (Trilocanapala) was the very opposite of his father. – pg 13-14 (End of Hindu rule in Afganistan and Hindu rulers were just, noble people)

Chap 50 : HOW MANY STAR-CYCLES THERE ARE BOTH IN A " KALPA " AND IN A " CATURYUGA."

These star-cycles as known through the canon of Alfazari and Ya'kub Ibn Tarik, were derived from a Hindu who came to Bagdad as a member of the political mission which Sindh sent to the Khalif Almansur, A.H. 154 ( = A.D. 771). If we compare these secondary statements with the primary statements of the Hindus, we discover discrepancies, the cause of which is not known to me. Is their origin due to the translation of Alfazari and Ya'kub ? or to the dictation of that Hindu ? or to the fact that afterwards these computations have been corrected by Brahmagupta, or some one else ? – pg 15 ( Hindu origin of Arab astronomy)

Evidently Alfazari and Yakub sometimes heard from their Hindu master expressions to this effect, - pg 18 (acknowledgement of Hindu teachers)

Further, Abu-alhasan of Al'ahwaz mentions the revolutions of the planets in the years of al-arjabhar, i.e  in caturyugas. I shall represent them in the table such as I have found them, for I guess that they are directly derived from the dictation of that Hindu. Possibly, therefore, they give us the theory of Aryabhata. Some  of these numbers agree with the star-cycles in a caturyuga, which we have mentioned on the authority of Brahmagupta; others differ from them, and agree with the theory of Pulisa; and a third class of numbers differs from those of both Brahmagupta and Pulisa, as the examination of the whole table will show. – pg 19 (further acknowledgement of Hindu contribution)

Chap 51 : AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS "ADHIMASA," " UNAEATEA, AND THE "AHARGANAS," AS REPRESENTING

DIFFERENT SUMS OF DAYS.

THE months of the Hiudus are lunar, their years solar ; therefore their new year's day must in each solar year fall by so much earlier as the lunar year is shorter than the solar (roughly speaking, by eleven days). If this precession makes up one complete month, they act in the same way as the Jews, who make the year a leap year of thirteen months by reckoning the month Adar

twice, and in a similar way to the heathen Arabs, who in a so-called annus procrastinationis postponed the new year's day, thereby extending the preceding year to the duration of thirteen months. – pg 20 (Hindu calculation of year and month similar to that of Jews and pagan Arabs)

Chap 52 : ON THE CALCULATION OF ''AHAEGANA" IN GENERAL, THAT IS, THE RESOLUTION OF YEARS AND MONTHS

INTO DAYS, AND, VICE VERSA, THE COMPOSITION OF YEARS AND MONTHS OUT OF DAYS.

Ya'kub Ibn Tarik in the calculation of the universal solar and unardtra days. As he translated from the Indian language a calculation the reasons of which he did not understand, it would have been his duty to examine it, and to check the various numbers of it one by the other. –pg 34 (Hindu books translated by Islamic scholars)

Dividing the civil days of a kalpa by the solar cycles of a kalpa, we get as quotient the number of days which compose a year, i.e. 365    1,116,450,000/ 4,320,000,000   Reducing this fraction by the common divisor of 450,000, we get 365  2481/9600'-– pg 39 (computation of number of days- 365.2584 -  in a year – modern value is 365.242)

Chap 53 : ON THE AHARGANA, OF THE RESOLUTION OF YEARS INTO MONTHS, ACCORDING TO SPECIAL RULES WHICH ARE ADOPTED IN THE CALENDARS FOR CERTAIN DATES OF MOMENTS OF TIME

This, Varahamihira says, is the method of the Siddhanta of the Greeks. – pg 51 (exchange of knowledge between Hindus and Greeks)

Chap 54 : ON THE COMPUTATION OF THE MEAN PLACES OF THE PLANETS.

Chap 55 : ON THE ORDER OP THE PLANETS, THEIR DISTANCES AND SIZES

the following passage of the Matsya-Purana:— " The distance of heaven from the earth is equal to the radius of the earth. The sun is the lowest of all planets. Above him there is the moon, and above the moon are the lunar stations and their stars. Above them is Mercury, then follow Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Great Bear, and above it the pole. The pole is connected with the heaven. The stars cannot be counted by man. Those who impugn this view maintain that the moon at conjunction becomes hidden

by the sun, as the light of the lamp becomes invisible in the light of the sun, and she becomes more visible the more she moves away from the sun." – pg 62 ( Dominant view of Hindus was that sun and stars revolved around earth)

The Vayu-Purana says: " The sun has globular shape, fiery nature, and lOOO rays, by which he attracts the water ; 400 of these are for the rain, 300 for the snow, and 300 tor the air.”….. "The sun illuminates the earth in that third of the year which commences with 0° of Pisces by 300 rays ; he causes rain in the following third by 400 rays, and he causes cold and snow in the remaining third by 300 rays." ….. " The rays of the sun and the wind raise the water from the sea to the sun. Now, if the water dropped down from the sun, it would be hot. Therefore the sun hands the water over to the moon, that it should drop down from the moon cold, and thus refresh the world."– pg 62-63 (Evaporation)

The Hindus seem to believe that the heavenly bodies nourish themselves by the vapours, which also Aristotle mentions as the theory of certain people. – pg 63 (similar to Greek view)

(Wrong (as per modern knowledge) views held by Hindu puranic scriptures).

The Vishnu-Dharma says : " The stars are watery, and the rays of the sun illuminate them in the night. Those who by their pious deeds have obtained a place in the height sit there on their thrones, and, when shining, they are reckoned among the stars." – pg 64

Matsya-Purdna says: " The diameter of the planets the body of the sun is 9000 yojanas; the diameter of the moon is the double of it, and the apsis is as much as the two together." –pg 65

Matsya-Purana says: "The circumference of Venus is one sixteenth of the circumference of the moon, that of Jupiter three-fourths of the circumference of Venus, that of Saturn or Mars three-fourths of that of Jupiter, that of Mercury three-fourths of that of Mars." The same statement is also found in the Vayu-Purana. – pg 65

Views of Hindu scientists :

Varahamihira says in the book Samhita : " The moon is always below the sun, who throws his rays upon her, and lits up the one half of her body, whilst the other half remains dark and shadowy like a pot which you place in the sunshine. The one half which faces the sun is lit up, whilst the other half which does not face it remains dark. The moon is watery in her essence, therefore the rays which fall on her are reflected, as they are reflected from the water and the mirror towards – pg 66 (correct view (as per modern knowledge) of Hindu scientist)

Every educated man among the Hindu theologians, and much more so among their astronomers, believes indeed that the moon is below the sun, and even below all the planets. – pg 67 (though Hindu scriptures had different view ie moon is further away from sun but scientist and even theologians were having opposite view)

The only Hindu traditions we have regarding the distances of the stars are those mentioned by Ya'kub Ibn Tarik in his book. The Composition of the Spheres, and he had drawn his information from the well-known Hindu scholar who, A.H. 161, accompanied an embassy to Bagdad. – pg 67 (Hindus travelling to Arab World to spread knowledge)

The methods of the computation of the diameters of sun and moon, as given by the Hindu canones, such as the Khandakhadyaka and Karanatsara, are the same as are found in the canon of Alkhwarizmi. Also the computation of the diameter of the shadow in the Khandakhadyaka  is similar to that one given by Alkhwarizmi, - pg 79 (al-Khwārizmī is one of the leading lights of the Islamic golden age – Algebra is named after his operation to solve quadratic equation and Alogrithm is named after him (Latin name) – he too studied Hindu numbers and subjects . He  introduced Hindu decimal positional number system to the Western world. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB)

Therefore we restrict ourselves to quote from them only subjects more or less connected with the special subject of this book, which either are noteworthy for their strangeness, or which are unknown among our people (the Muslims) and in our (the Muslim) countries. – pg 80 (all sciences mentioned by Al Beruni in his book was unknown to muslims or were exotic)

Chap 56 : ON THE STATIONS OF THE MOON

However, the Arabs are illiterate people, who can neither write nor reckon. They only rely upon numbers and eyesight. They have no other medium of research than eyesight, and are not able to determine the lunar stations without the fixed stars in them. – pg 81 (calling Arabs illiterate)

I t is this which has led our astronomers and the authors of 'anwa’  books astray; for they say that the Hindus have twenty-eight lunar stations, but that they leave out one which is always covered by the rays of the sun. – pg 82 (Islamic scholars closely following Hindu sciences)

The notions of the Hindus regarding the stars are not free from confusion. They are only little skilled in practical observation and calculation, and have no understanding of the motions of the fixed stars. – pg 86 (testimony of Al Beruni’s scholarship and his quest to know the unknown)

Chap 57 : ON THE HELIACAL RISINGS OF THE STARS, AND ON THE CEREMONIES AND RITES WHICH THE HINDUS PRACTISE

AT SUCH A MOMENT.

V. 17.Know that he who does this during seven consecutive years with pious intention, strong belief, and confidence, possesses at the end of them the whole earth and the ocean which surrounds it on the four sides, if he is a Kshatriya.

V. 18.—If he is a Brahman, he obtains his wishes, learns the Veda, obtains a beautiful wife, and gets noble children from her. If he is a Vaisya, he obtains much landed property and acquires a glorious lordship. If he is a Sudra, he will obtain wealth. All of them obtain health and safety, the cessation of injuries, and the realisation of reward." This is Varahamihira's statement regarding the offering to Suhail. – pg 95-96 ( Varahamihira – one of the greatest of the ancient Hindu scientists – mentions the rituals to be performed on particular stars. Hindus had religion and science intermingled. The society was categorized into 4 Varnas (Castes) and lowest Sudras were also important part of society)

From the jugs they also derive prognostics as to the different castes. The northern jug refers to the Brahman, the eastern to the Kshatriya, the southern to the Vaisya, and the western to the Sudra. – pg 98 ( Sudra were an important part of society just like other casts)

Chap 58 : HOW  EBB AND FLOW FOLLOW EACH OTHER IN THE OCEAN.

It is this fire which absorbs the waters of the ocean. Others say : ' The water of the streams does not , increase the ocean, because Indra, the ruler, takes up the ocean in the shape of the cloud, and sends it down as rains.' " – pg 102 (water cycle explained)

" By erecting the shape of the linga of Mahadeva as an object of thy worship." This he did. The linga he raised was the stone of Somanath, for soma means the moon and natha means master, so that the whole word means master of the moon. The image was destroyed by the Prince Mahmud—may God be merciful to him!—A.H. 416. He ordered the upper part to be broken and the remainder to be transported to his residence, Ghaznin, with all its coverings and trappings of gold, jewels, and embroidered garments. Part of it has been thrown into the hippodrome of the town, together with the Cakrasvamin, an idol of bronze, that

had been brought from Taneshar. Another part of the idol from Somanath lies before the door of the mosque of Ghaznin, on which people rub their feet to clean them from dirt and wet. – pg 102-103 (Islamic destruction of Hindu Temples)

The linga is an image of the penis of Mahadeva. I have heard the following story regarding i t : — " A Rishi, on seeing Mahadeva with his wife, became suspicious of him, and cursed him that he should lose his penis. At once his penis dropped, and was as if wiped off. But afterwards the Rishi was in a position to establish the signs of his innocence and to confirm them by the necessary proofs. The suspicion which had troubled his mind was removed, and he spoke to him : ' Verily, I shall recompense thee by making the image of the limb which thou hast lost the object of worship for men, who thereby will find the road to God,

and come near him.' " – pg 103 (Origin of Linga worship)

In the south-wcst of the Sindh country this idol is frequently met with in the houses destined for the worship of the Hindus, but Somanath was the most famous of these places. Every day they brought there a jug of Ganges water and a basket of flowers from

Kashmir. They believed that the liniga of Somanath would cure persons of every inveterate illness and heal every desperate and incurable disease. – pg 103 (Somnath being one of the most famous temples)

The reason why in particular Somanath has become so famous is that it was a harbour for seafaring people, and a station for those who went to and fro between Sufala in the country of the Zanj and China – pg 104 (trade with China through sea)

Mani has come to a belief like this, after he had heard from the Hindus that there is a demon in the sea whose drawing breath and exhaling breath causes the flow and the ebb.

The educated Hindus determine the daily phases of the tides by the rising and setting of the moon, the monthly phases by the increase and waning of the moon ; but the physical cause of both phenomena is not understood by them. – pg 105 (absurd and sublime reasoning co-existed for lay and educated people)

Chap 59 : ON THE SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES

I T is perfectly known to the Hindu astronomers that the moon is eclipsed by the shadow of the earth, and the sun is eclipsed by the moon. – pg 107

Elipse as explained by Puranas and counter argument given by Varahamihira opposing Puranic view – pg 107-109

Brahmagupta, ( the most distinguished of Hindu astronomers) holds the Puranic view on Eclipses. Al Beruni castigates him and quotes Quoran “(Koran, Sura xxvii. 14), " They have denied our signs, although their hearts knew them clearly, from wickedness and, haughtiness," If people must under circumstances give up opposing the religious codes (as seems to be your case), why then do you order people to be pious if you forget to be so yourself? Why do you, after having spoken such words, then begin to calculate the diameter of the moon in order to explain her eclipsing the sun, and the diameter of the shadow of the earth in order to explain its eclipsing the moon ? Why do you compute both eclipses in agreement with the theory of those heretics, and not

according to the views of those with whom you think it proper to agree ? If the Brahmans are ordered to practise some act of worship or something else at the occurrence of an eclipse, the eclipse is only the date of these things, not their cause. Thus we Muslims are bound to say certain prayers, and prohibited from saying others, at certain times of the revolution of the sun

and his light. These things are simply chronological dates for those acts, nothing more, for the sun has nothing whatever to do with our (Muslim) worship. – pg 111-112 (Muslims scholars kept religion and sciences separate – which resulted in their golden age)

I, for my part, am inclined to the belief that that which made Brahmagupta speak the above-mentioned words (which involve a sin against conscience) was something of a calamitous fate, like that of Socrates, which had befallen him, notwithstanding the abundance of his knowledge and the sharpness of his intellect, and notwithstanding his extreme youth at the time. For he wrote the Brahmasiddhanta when he was only thirty years of age. If this indeed is his excuse, we accept it, and herewith drop the matter. – pg 112 (giving Brahmagupta – a benefit of doubt)

However, in each nation there are ignorant people, and leaders still more ignorant than they themselves, who (as the Koran,

Sura xxix. 12, says) "bear their own burdens and other burdens besides them," and who think they can increase the light of their minds ; the fact being that the masters are as ignorant as the pupils. – pg 113 (quoting Koran for ignorant people)

Further, Varahamihira says that somebody used to think that the conjunction of the planets is the cause of the eclipse (V. 16), whilst others tried to prognosticate an eclipse from unlucky phenomena, as, e.g. the falling of stars, comets, halo, darkness, hurricane, landslip, and earthquake. " These things," so he says, " are not always contemporary with an eclipse, nor are they its cause ; the nature of an unlucky event is the only thing which these occurrences have in common with an eclipse. A reasonable explanation is totally different from such absurdities." – pg 113 ( Varahamihira taking an objective view of elipses)

Chap 60 : ON THE PARVAN

Chap 61 : ON THE DOMINANTS OF THE DIFFERENT MEASURES OF TIME IN BOTH RELIGIOUS AND ASTRONOMICAL RELATIONS, AND ON CONNECTED SUBJECTS.

Chap 62 : ON THE SIXTY YEARS-SAMVATSARA, ALSO CALLED " SHASHTYABDA."

Chap 63 : ON THAT WHICH ESPECIALLY CONCERNS THE BRAHMANS, AND WHAT THEY ARE OBLIGED TO DO DURING THEIR

WHOLE LIFE.

The life of the Brahman, after seven years of it have passed, is divided into four parts. The first part begins

with the eighth year, when the Brahmans come to him to instruct him, to teach him his duties, and to enjoin

him to adhere to them and to embrace them as long as he lives. …..This first period of the Brahman's life extends till the twenty-fifth year of his age, …. His duty is to practice abstinence, to make the earth his bed, to begin with

the learning of the Veda and of its explanation, of the science of theology and law, all this being taught to him

by a master whom he serves day and night. He washes himself thrice a day, and performs a sacrifice to the fire

both at the beginning and end of the day. After the sacrifice he worships his master. He fasts a day and he

breaks fast a day, but he is never allowed to eat meat. He dwells in the house of the master, which he only leaves

in order to ask for a gift and to beg in not more than five houses once a day, either at noon or in the evening.

Whatever alms he receives he places before his master to choose from it what he likes. Then the master

allows him to take the remainder. Thus the pupil nourishes himself from the remains of the dishes of

his master. Further, he fetches the wood for the fire,  - pg 130-131 (Bramcharya ashram)

Hindus highly venerate the fire, and offer flowers to it. It is the same case with all other nations. – pg 131 (Fire worship common to all nations)

The second period of their life extends from the twenty-fifth year till the fiftieth, The master allows him to marry.

He marries, establishes a household, and intends to have descendants, but he cohabits with his wife only once in

a month after she has become clean of the menstruation. He is not allowed to marry a woman above twelve years

of age. He gains his sustenance either by the fee he obtains for teaching Brahmans and Kshatriyas, not as a payment, but as a present, or by presents which he receives from some one because he performs for him the sacrifices to the fire, or by asking a gift from the kings and nobles, there being no importunate pressing on his part, and no unwillingness on the part of the giver……….he should not trade himself, and that a Vaisya should do the business for him, because originally trade is forbidden

on account of the deceiving and lying which are mixed up with it. – pg 132 (Grihasth ashram; to marry a girl below 12 years; trading / making money not encouraged as it involves lying – so stress is on purity)

The third period of the life of the Brahman extends from the fiftieth year to the seventy-fifth,….. He practices abstinence, leaves his household, and hands it as well as his wife over to his children, if the latter does not prefer to accompany him into the life in the wilderness. He dwells outside civilisation, and leads the same life again which he led in the first period. He does not take shelter under a roof, nor wear any other dress but some bark of a tree, simply sufficient to cover his loins. He sleeps on the earth without any bed, and only nourishes himself by fruit, vegetables, and roots. He lets the hair grow long, and does not anoint himself with oil. – pg 132-133 (Vanaprasth Ashram)

The fourth period extends till the end of life. He wears a red garment and holds a stick in his hand.

He is always given to meditation; he strips the mind of friendship and enmity, and roots out desire, and lust, and wrath. He does not converse with anybody at all. When walking to a place of a particular merit, in order to gain a heavenly reward, he does not stop on the road in a village longer than a day, nor in a city longer than five days. If any one gives him something, he does not leave a remainder of it for the following day. He has no other business but that of caring for the path which leads to salvation, and for reaching moksha, whence there is no return to this world. – pg 133 (Sanyas ashram)

The universal duties of the Brahman throughout his whole life are works of piety, giving alms and receiving them. For that which the Brahmans give reverts to the pitaras (is in reality a benefit to the Fathers). He must continually read, perform the sacrifices, take care of the fire which he lights, offer before it, worship it, and preserve it from being extinguished, that he may be burned by it after his death. – pg 133 (Duties of Brahmin)

The Brahman, as long as he lives, eats only twice a day, at noon and at nightfall; and when he wants to take his meal, he begins by putting aside as much as is sufficient for one or two men as alms, especially for strange Brahmans who happen to come at evening time asking for something. To neglect their maintenance would be a great sin. Further, he puts something aside for the cattle, the birds, and the fire. Over the remainder he says prayers and eats it. The remainder of his dish he places outside his house, and does not any more come near it, as it is no longer allowable for him, being destined for the chance passer-by who wants it, be he a man, bird, dog, or something else. – pg 134 (Brahmin’s life)

He is obliged to dwell between the river Sindh in the north and the river Carmanvati (river Chambal?) in the south. He

is not allowed to cross either of these frontiers so as to enter the country of the Turks or of the Karnata. Further, he must live between the ocean in the east and west. – pg 134 -135 (boundary of North India – he does not cover south India??)

Chap 64 : ON THE RITES AND CUSTOMS WHICH THE OTHER CASTES, BESIDES THE BRAHMANS, PRACTISE DURING THEIR

LIFE TIME.

THE Kshatriya reads the Veda and learns it, but does not teach it. He offers to the fire and acts according

to the rules of the Puranas. … He rules the people and defends them, for he is created for this task. – pg 136 (Kshatriya)

It is the duty of the Vaisya to practise agriculture and to cultivate the land, to tend the cattle and to remove the needs of the Brahmans. – pg 136 (Vaisya)

The Sudra is like a servant to the Brahman, taking care of his affairs and serving him. If, though being poor in the extreme, he still desires not to be without a yagnopavita, he girds himself only with the linen on. – pg 136 (Sudra)

Every action which is considered as the privilege of a Brahman, such as saying prayers, the recitation of the Veda, and offering sacrifices to the fire, is forbidden to him, to such a degree that when, e.g. a Sudra or a Vaisya is proved to have recited the Veda, he is accused by the Brahmans before the ruler, and the latter will order his tongue to be cut off. However, the meditation on God, works of piety, and almsgiving are not forbidden to him. – pg 136-137 (Sudra and Vaisya are clubbed together denying them the right to recite Vedas)

Every man who takes to some occupation which is not allowed to his caste, as, e.g. a Brahman to trade, a Sudra to agriculture, commits a sin or crime, which they consider only a little less than the crime of theft. – pg 137 (migration from one caste to another is discouraged or prohibited)

The following is one of the traditions of the Hindus : —In the days of King Rama human life was very long, always of a well-defined and well-known length. Thus a child never died before its father. Then, however it happened that the son of a Brahman died while the father was still alive. Now the Brahman brought his child to the door of the king and spoke to him : " This innovation has sprung up in thy days for no other reason but this, that there is something rotten in the state of the country, and because a certain Vazir commits in thy realm what he commits." Then Rama began to inquire into the cause of this, and finally they pointed out to him a Candala who took the greatest pains in performing worship and in self-torment. The king rode to him and found him on the banks of the Ganges, hanging on something with his head downward. The king bent his bow, shot at him, and pierced his bowels. Then he spoke : " That is i t ! I kill thee on account of a good action which thou art not allowed to do." When he returned home, he found the son of the Brahman, who had been deposited before his door, alive. – pg 137 (Ramayana incident that prevented low caste to recite Vedas)

All other men except the Candala, as far as they are not Hindus, are called mleccha, i.e. unclean, all those who kill men and slaughter animals and eat the flesh of cows. – pg 137 (outcastes r ones who r unclean and kill men and animals)

All these things originate in the difference of the classes or castes, one set of people treating the others as fools. This apart, all men are equal to each other, as Vasudeva says regarding him who seeks salvation: " In the judgment of the intelligent man, the Brahman and the Candala are equal, the friend and the foe, the faithful and the deceitful, nay, even the serpent and

the weasel. If to the eyes of intelligence all things are equal, to ignorance they appear as separated and different." – pg 137-138 (Hindu philosophy equating all humans as equals)

Chap 65 : ON THE SACRIFICES

So, e.g. the asvamedha.  A mare is let freely to wander about in the country grazing, without anybody's hindering her. Soldiers follow her, drive her, and cry out before her: " She is the king of the world. He who does not agree, let him come forward." The Brahmans walk behind her and perform sacrifices to the fire where she casts dung. When she thus has wandered about through all parts of the world, she becomes food for the Brahmans and for him whose property she is. – pg 139 (Asvamedha – Brahmins eating meat)

The Devas brought back to them the fire with all honour and made it a mediator between themselves and mankind, receiving from the latter the shares which they offer to the Devas, and making these shares reach them.- pg 141 (importance of fire – to act as mediator between man and devas – Hindu mythology)

Chap 61 : ON PILGRIMAGE AND THE VISITING OF SACRED PLACES.

PILGRIMAGES are not obligatory to the Hindus, but facultative and meritorious – pg 142

In every place to which some particular holiness is ascribed, the Hindus construct ponds intended for the ablutions. In this they have attained to a very high degree of art, so that our people (the Muslims), when they see them, wonder at them, and are unable

to describe them, much less to construct anything like them. – pg 144 ( high quality of construction of ponds)

In Multan there is a pond in which the Hindus on single worship by bathing themselves, if they are not prevented. – pg 145

Nowadays the Hindus also visit Kashmir. Lastly, they used to visit Multan before its idol-temple was destroyed. – pg 148 ( Kashmir being the centre of pilgrimage for Hindus and destruction of temple in Multan)

Chap 67 : ON ALMS, AND HOW A MAN MUST SPEND WHAT HE EARNS.

IT is obligatory with them every day to give alms as much as possible. They do not let money become a year or even a month old, for this would be a draft on an unknown future, of which a man does not know whether he reaches it or not. – pg 149 (do not believe in savings)

Brahmins do not pay taxes rest pay 1/6 to the king.

Quite liberals in giving alms - 1/9^th or 1/4^th is given for alms.

Usury or taking percentages is forbidden. The sin which a man commits thereby corresponds to the amount by which the percentages have increased the capital stock. Only to the Sudra is it allowed to take percentages, as long as his profit is not more than one fiftieth of the capital (i.e. he is not to take more than two per cent.). – pg 150 ( Interest is forbidden – only sudras can take 2% interest – does it mean that Sudras were money lenders??)

Chap 68 : ON WHAT IS ALLOWED AND FORBIDDEN IN EATING AND DRINKING.

ORIGINALLY killing in general was forbidden to them, as it is to the Christians and Manichseans. – pg 151 (killing prohibited to Christians too)

Therefore the here-mentioned law applies in particular only to the Brahmans, because they are the guardians of the religion, and because it forbids them to give way to their lusts. The same rule applies to those members of the Christian clergy – pg 151 (Laws apply more to Brahmins same as the case with Christian clergy)

As matters stand thus, it is allowed to kill animals by means of  strangulation – pg 151 (slaughtering by strangulation)

That which is forbidden are cows, horses, mules, asses, camels, elephants, tame poultry, crows, parrots,

nightingales, all kinds of eggs and wine. The latter is allowed to the Sudra. He may drink it, but dare not sell it, as he is not allowed to sell meat. – pg 151-152 (Sudra can drink wine – so laws r relaxed for sudra)

Some Hindus say that in the time before Bharata it was allowed to eat the meat of cows, and that there then existed sacrifices part of which was the killing of cows. – pg 152 ( Cows meat allowed in ancient times)

Other Hindus told me that the Brahmans used to suffer from the eating of cows' meat. For their country is hot, the inner parts of the bodies are cold, the natural warmth becomes feeble in them, and the power of digestion is so weak that they must strengthen it by eating the leaves of betel after dinner, and by chewing the betel-nut. The hot betel inflames the heat of the body, the chalk on the betel-leaves dries up everything wet, and the betel-nut acts as an astringent on the teeth, the gums, and the stomach. As this is the case, they forbade eating cows' meat, because it is essentially thick and cold. – pg 152 (Hindus providing secular reason for not eating cow’s meat)

Chap 69 : ON MATRIMONY, THE MENSTRUAL COURSES, EMBRYOS, AND CHILDBED.

The Hindus marry at a very young age; therefore the parents arrange the marriage for their sons. On that occasion the Brahmans perform the rites of the sacrifices, and they as well as others receive alms. The implements of the wedding rejoicings are brought forward. No gift is settled between them. The man gives only a present to the wife, as he thinks fit, and a marriage gift in advance, which he has no right to claim back, but the wife may give it back to him of her own will. Husband and wife can only

be separated by death, as they have no divorce. – pg 154 ( Hindus marry young; No dowry; Groom gives gift to wife; No divorce)

A man may marry one to four wives. He is not allowed to take more than four ; but if one of his wives die, he may take another one to complete the legitimate number. However, he must not go beyond it. – pg 155 (polygamy; upto 4 wives)

If a wife loses her husband by death, she cannot marry another man. She has only to choose between two things—either to remain a widow as long as she lives or to burn herself ; and the latter eventuality is considered the preferable, because as a widow she is ill-treated as long as she lives. As regards the wives of the kings, they are in the habit of burning them, whether they wish it or not, by which they desire to prevent any of them by chance committing something unworthy of the illustrious husband. They make an exception only for women of advanced years and for those who have children; for the son is the responsible protector of his mother. Pg 155 (Sati, options available to widows; sati is preferred option for a women who is childless) 

According to their marriage law it is better to marry a stranger than a relative. The more distant the relationship of a woman with regard to her husband the better. It is absolutely forbidden to marry related women both of the direct descending line, viz. a granddaughter or great-granddaughter, and of the direct ascending line, viz. a mother, grandmother, or greatgrandmother.

It is also forbidden to marry collateral relations, viz. a sister, a niece, a maternal or paternal aunt and their daughters, except in case the couple of relations who want to marry each other be removed from each other by five consecutive generations. In that case the prohibition is waived, but, notwithstanding, such a marriage is an object of dislike to them. – pg 155 ( No marriage relation with relatives)

Some Hindus think that the number of the wives depends upon the caste; that, accordingly, a Brahman may take four, a Kshatriya three, a Vaisya two wives, and a Sudra one. Every man of a caste may marry a woman of his own caste or one of the castes or caste below his; but nobody is allowed to marry a woman of a caste superior to his own. – pg 155 – 156 ( No of wives depend on caste and one can marry a girl of different lower caste )

The child belongs to the caste of the mother, not to that of the father. Thus, e.g. if the wife of a Brahman is a Brahman, her child also is a Brahman ; if she is a Sudra, her child is a Sudra. In our time, however, the Brahmans, although it is allowed to them, never marry any woman except one of their own caste. – pg 156 (Child bears the caste of his/her mother)

The longest duration of the menstrual courses which has been observed is sixteen days, but in reality they last only during the first four days, and then the husband is not allowed to cohabit with his wife, nor even to come near her in the house, because during this time she is impure. After the four days have elapsed and she has washed, she is pure again, and the husband may cohabit with her, even if the blood has not yet entirely disappeared; for this blood is not considered as that of the menstrual courses, but as the same substance-matter of which the embryos consist. – pg 156 (menstrual superstition)

It is the duty (of the Brahman), if he wants to cohabit with a wife to get a child, to perform a sacrifice to the fire called garbhadhana; but he does not perform it, because it requires the presence of the woman, and therefore he feels ashamed to do so. In consequence he postpones the sacrifice and unites it with the next following one, which is due in the fourth month of the

pregnancy, called simamtonnayanam: After the wife has given birth to the child, a third sacrifice is performed between the birth and the moment when the mother begins to nourish the child. It is called jatakarman. The child receives a name after the days of the childbed have elapsed. The sacrifice for the occasion of the name-giving is called namakarman.- pg 156 (child bearing rituals – female participation is essential)

As long as the woman is in childbed, she does not touch any vessel, and nothing is eaten in her house, nor does the Brahman light there a fire. These days are eight for the Brahman, twelve for the Kshatriya, fifteen for the Vaisya, and thirty for the Sudra. For the lowcaste people which are not reckoned among any caste, no term is fixed. – pg 156-157 ( different laws for different castes – out castes have no laws)

Thus, when Kabul was conquered by the Muslims and the Ispahbad of Kabul adopted Islam , he stipulated that he should not be bound to eat cows' meat nor to commit sodomy (which proves that he abhorred the one as much as the other).- pg 157 (Kabul was Hindu / Buddhist )

In reality, the matter is not as people think, but it is rather this, that the Hindus are not very severe in punishing whoredom. – pg 157 (open society)

Hindus are not very severe in punishing whoredom. The fault, however, in this lies with the kings, not with the nation. But for this, no Brahman or priest would suffer in their idol-temples the women who sing, dance, and play. The kings make them an attraction for their cities, a bait of pleasure for their subjects, for no other but financial reasons. By the revenues which they derive from the business both as fines and taxes, they want to recover the expenses which their treasury has to spend on the army. – pg 158 (open society – women dancing in temples –Alberuni says due to King’s orders and to increase revenue)

In a similar way the Buyide prince 'Adud-aldaula acted, who besides also had a second aim in view, viz.

that of protecting his subjects against the passions of his unmarried soldiers. – pg 158 (prostitution allowed to keep passions in check)

Chap 70 : ON LAWSUITS

A higher sort of oath is this : The accused person is invited to drink the bish (vishct ?) called brahmana (?). I t is one of the worst kinds; but if he speaks the truth, the drink does not do him any harm (similar other primitive ways)………..- pg 159 (primitive form of deliverance of justice)

Chap 71 : ON PUNISHMENTS AND EXPIATIONS

IN this regard the manners and customs of the Hindus resemble those of the Christians, for they are, like those of the latter, based on the principles of virtue and abstinence from wickedness, such as never to kill under any circumstance whatsoever, to give to him who has stripped you of your coat also your shirt, to offer to him who has beaten your cheek the other cheek also, to bless your enemy and to pray for him. Upon my life, this is a noble philosophy; but the people of this world are not all philosophers. Most of them are ignorant and erring, who cannot be kept on the straight road save by the sword and the whip. And, indeed, ever since Constantine the Victorious became a Christian, both sword and whip have ever been employed, for without them it would be impossible to rule. – pg 161 (customs and laws based on assumption that humans r inherently good – similar to Christian theology – but unlike Islam)

India has developed in a similar way. For the Hindus relate that originally the affairs of government and war were in the hands of the Brahmans, but the country became disorganised, since they ruled according to the philosophic principles of their religious codes, which proved impossible when opposed to the mischievous and perverse elements of the populace……. Ever since the Brahmans live by asking and begging, and the penal code is exercised under the control of the kings, not under that of the scholars. – pg 161 (As per Hindu notion, they were ruled by Brahmins earlier – who followed philosophic principles – and since it was not possible to govern, the reign shifted to Kashtriyas – and Brahmins lived by begging)

The law about murder is this : If the murderer is a Brahman, and the murdered person a member of another caste, he is only bound to do expiation consisting of fasting, prayers, and almsgiving. If the murdered person is a Brahman, the Brahman

murderer has to answer for it in a future life ; for he is not allowed to do expiation, because expiation wipes off the sin from the sinner, whilst nothing can wipe off any of the mortal crimes from a Brahman, of which the greatest are: the murder of a Brahman, called vajrabrahmahatya ; further, the killing of a cow, the drinking of wine, whoredom, especially with the wife of one's own father and teacher. – pg 162 (killing of Brahmin, cows, drinking wine, whoredom considered most heinous crimes)

However, the kings do not for any of these crimes kill a Brahman or Kshatriya, but they confiscate his property and banish him from their country. If a man of a caste under those of the Brahman and  Kshatriya kills a man of the same caste, he has to do expiation, but besides the kings inflict upon him a punishment in order to establish an example. – pg 162 ( Brahmins and Kashtriyas were a privileged lot)

The law of theft directs that the punishment of the thief should be in accordance with the value of the stolen object. Accordingly, sometimes a punishment of extreme or of middling severity is necessary, sometimes a course of correction and imposing a payment, sometimes only exposing to public shame and ridicule. If the object is very great, the kings blind a Brahman and mutilate him, cutting off his left hand and right foot, or the right hand and left foot, whilst they mutilate a Kshatriya without

blinding him, and kill thieves of the other castes. – pg 162 (varying punishments for different degrees of crimes)

An adulterous is driven out of the house of the husband and banished. – pg 162 (unlike stoning her to death)

I have repeatedly been told that when Hindu slaves (in Muslim countries) escape and return to their country  and religion, the Hindus order that they should fast by way of expiation, then they bury them in the dung, stale, and milk of cows for a certain number of days, till they get into a state of fermentation. Then they drag them out of the dirt and give them similar dirt to eat, and more of the like. I have asked the Brahmans if this is true, but they deny it, and maintain that there is no expiation possible for such an individual, and that he is never allowed to return into those conditions of life in which he was before he was carried off as a prisoner. And how should that be possible ? If a Brahman eats in the house of a Sudra for sundry days, he is expelled from his caste and can never regain it. – pg 162-63 ( Muslims taking hindu slaves – hindus’ focus on maintaining purity of castes)

Chap 72 : ON INHERITANCE, AND WHAT CLAIM THE DECEASED PERSON HAS ON IT

THE chief rule of their law of inheritance is this, that the women do not inherit, except the daughter. She gets the fourth part of the share of a son, according to a passage in the book Manu. If she is not married, the money is spent on her till the time of her marriage, and her dowry is bought by means of her share. Afterwards she has no more income from the house of her father. pg 164 (women inheritance)

If a widow does not burn herself, but prefers to remain alive, the heir of her deceased husband has to provide her with nourishment and clothing as long as she lives. – pg 164 (sati is voluntary)

A hermaphrodite is reckoned as a male being. – pg 165 (eunuchs have same rights as sons)

Besides the almsgiving at the just-mentioned sixteen banquets, the heirs must make, above the door of the house, something like a shelf projecting from the wall in the open air, on which they have every day to place a dish of something cooked and a vessel of water, till the end of ten days after the death. For possibly the spirit of the deceased has not yet found its rest, but moves still to and fro around the house, hungry and thirsty.

A similar view is indicated by Plato in Phaedo, where he speaks of the soul circling round the graves, because possibly it still retains some vestiges of the love for the body. Further he says: "People have said regarding the soul that it is its habit to combine something coherent out of the single limbs of the body, which is its dwelling in this as well as in the future world, when it leaves the body, and is by the death of the body separated from it." – pg 165-166 (similarity between hindu and Greeks)

Chap 73 : ABOUT WHAT IS DUB TO THE BODIES OF THE DEAD AND OF THE LIVING (i.e. ABOUT BURYING AND SUICIDE).

IN the most ancient times the bodies of the dead were exposed to the air by being thrown on the fields without any covering; also sick people were exposed on the fields and in the mountains, and were left there. If they died there, they had the fate just mentioned ; but if they recovered, they returned to their dwellings. Thereupon there appeared a legislator who ordered people to expose their dead to the wind. In consequence they constructed roofed buildings with walls of rails, through which the wind blew, passing over the dead, as something similar is the case in the grave towers of the Zoroastrians. – pg 167 (disposing of the dead – similar to Parsis)

After they had practised this custom for a long time, Narayana prescribed to them to hand the dead over to the fire, and ever since .they are in the habit of burning them, - pg 167 (hindus buring their dead)

Nowadays the Slavonians, too, burn their dead, whilst the ancient Greeks seem to have had both customs, that of burning and that of burying. …..In these words, too, there is a reference to the burning as a Greek custom, but it seems to have been in use only for the great men among them. – pg 167-pg 168 (parallel with Greeks)

Those who fulfil these duties towards the dead afterwards wash themselves as well as their dresses during two days, because they have become unclean by touching the dead. – pg 170 (stress on hygiene)

the Hindus would not think of burning it save in the case of a widow who chooses to follow her husband, - pg 170 (sati is voluntary)

or in the case of those who are tired of their life, who are distressed over some incurable disease of their body, some irremovable bodily defect, or old age and infirmity. This, however, no man of distinction does, but only Vaisyas and Sudras, - Pg 170 (men committing suicide by burning themselves – only for infirm, old, etc and only vaishya and sudras)

Burning oneself is forbidden to Brahmans and Kshatriyas by a special law. Therefore these, if they want to kill themselves, do so at the time of an eclipse in some other manner, or they hire somebody to drown them in the Ganges, keeping them under water till they are dead. – pg 170  (suicide by Brahmins and kashtriyas)

Johannes Grammaticus relates that certain people in ancient Greek heathendom, "whom I call the worshippers of the devil "—so he says—used to beat their limbs with swords, and to throw themselves into the fire, without feeling any pain therefrom. – pg 171 (Greek parallel)

Socrates speaks : " Likewise it does not become a man to kill himself before the gods give him a cause in the shape of some compulsion or dire necessity, like that in which we now are." Further he says : " We human beings are, as it were, in a prison. It does not behove us to flee nor to free ourselves from it, because the gods take notice of us, since we, the human beings, are servants to them." – pg 171 (Socrates view on god)

Chap 74 : ON FASTING, AND THE VARIOUS KINDS OF IT.

FASTING is with the Hindus voluntary and supererogatory.  – pg 172 (voluntary and not asked for by religion)

Different types of fasts and their reward – pg 172-173

Chap 75 : ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE FAST-DAYS.

On that day they soil themselves with the dung of cows, and break fasting by feeding upon a mixture of cow's milk, urine, and dung. – pg 177 (cow is held holy)

Chap 76 : ON THE FESTIVALS AND FESTIVE DAYS

Most of the Hindu festivals are celebrated by women and children only. – pg 178

The 1st Karttika, or new moon's day, when the sun marches in Libra, is called Dibali. Then people bathe, dress festively, make presents to each other of betel-leaves and areca-nuts ; they ride to the temples to give alms and play merrily with each other till noon. In the night they light a great number of lamps in every place so that the air is perfectly clear. The cause of this festival is that Lakshmi, the wife of Vasudeva, once a year on this day liberates Bali, the son of Virocana, who is a prisoner in the seventh earth, and allows him to go out into the world. Therefore the festival is called Balirajya, i.e. the principality of Bali. – pg 182 (For Diwali there is no mention of Ram returning from Lanka)

Chap 77 : ON DAYS WHICH ARE HELD IN SPECIAL VENERATION, ON LUCKY AND UNLUCKY TIMES, AND ON SUCH

TIMES AS ARE PARTICULARLY FAVOURABLE FOR ACQUIRING IN THEM BLISS IN HEAVEN

They distinguish, e.g., the Sunday, because it is the day of the sun and the beginning of the week, as the Friday is distinguished in Islam. – pg 185 (Sunday was holy to Hindus – beginning of the week)

Accordingly the fraction at the end of the solar year is, in this computation, reckoned as 37/143, which implies

as the length of the solar year, 365 days 15’ 31’’ 2 8 ' ' ' 6"'. To raise this fraction of a day to one whole day,106/143 of

a day are required. I do not know whose theory this is. – pg 189 (computation of solar year)

This method is well known in their canones. We, however, communicate here only those of their methods of calculation

which we think remarkable, or which, as far as we know, have not yet been explained before Muslim ears, as Muslims know of the methods of the Hindus only those which are found in the Sind-hind. – pg 191 (only those methods / calculations r mentioned by Al Beruni that r not known to him)

They exaggerate the veneration of these times to such a degree that many of them commit suicide, wishing to die at such a time as promises them heavenly bliss. However, this is only done by Vaisyas and Sudras, whilst it is forbidden to Brahmans and Kshatriyas, who in consequence do not commit suicide – pg 191 (Brahims and Kashtriya do not commit suicide)

Chap : 78 : ON THE KARANAS

Wishing to remind the reader of something relating to the karanas which he perhaps has forgotten, we

must tell him that Alkindi and others like him have hit upon the system of the karanas, but one which was

not sufficiently explained. – pg 200 (Al Kindi and others borrowing from Hindu knowledge)

Chap 79 : ON TIIE YOGAS

Chap 80 : ON THE INTRODUCTORY PRINCIPLES OF HINDU ASTROLOGY, WITH A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THEIR METHODS OF

ASTROLOGICAL CALCULATIONS

Only few Hindus occupy themselves in the same way as physical scholars among the ancient Greeks did, with exact scientific researches on the comets and on the nature of the other phenomena of heaven (TO, fj.ereo)pa), for also in these things they are not able to rid themselves of the doctrines of their theologians. – pg 245 (Hindus had science and theology mixed up)

Links to Al Beruni’s Book – ‘India’

Vol. 1 : http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_5949073_001/

Vol. 2 : http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_5949073_002/